tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-83546363873206348042024-03-13T13:29:06.072-07:00Minor Nations Militaries 1914-45Minor Nations Militaries and their conflicts from 1914 to 1945.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger55125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-43165011275567450602016-10-26T09:37:00.002-07:002016-10-26T09:37:21.085-07:00The 1918 Japanese expedition to Siberia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<em><strong>A Japanese propaganda lithograph rallying for occupation
of the Russian Far East. The Japanese were defeated by the Soviet Russia
and were forced to withdraw by 1922.</strong></em><br />
<br />
<br />
The most substantial Japanese military operation during the First
World War was the 1918 expedition to Siberia. Although often described
as a defensive response by the powers to the Russian Revolution and
spread of Bolshevik power east, in the context of Japanese aims since
August 1914, the Allied Intervention marked for Tokyo another golden
opportunity to promote Japanese continental expansion. Just as a variety
of Japanese interests had on the eve of the Chinese Revolution aimed to
capitalize upon continental unrest to expand their orbit of influence,
many in Japan considered the Russian Revolution another extraordinary
opportunity. Foreign Minister Motono Ichiro urged prompt action in
Siberia and North Manchuria to establish a “predominant position in the
Orient.” Home Minister Goto Shinpei in December 1917 called for one
million Japanese troops to occupy Russia east of Lake Baikal at a cost
of five billion yen a year. And special adviser to Prime Minister
Terauchi Masatake, Nishihara Kamezo, began formulating plans in November
1917 for an “independent” Siberia under Japanese tutelage.<br />
<br />
<br />
By far the most influential champions of action in Siberia were,
however, elder statesman Yamagata Aritomo and his protégés in the
Imperial Army. Although these men had played a central political and
military role in Japan’s wars against China and Russia, Foreign Minister
Kato Takaaki and the civilian cabinet had, with their swift declaration
of war against Germany and successful negotiation of rights in China,
decisively outmaneuvered the Yamagata faction in the first year of the
Great War. As prime minister from October 1916, Yamagata protégé General
Terauchi Masatake had, himself, seized the reins of Japan’s continental
policy in 1917 by negotiating a series of loans to Beijing totaling 145
million yen (the so-called Nishihara Loans). Members of the Yamagata
faction viewed intervention in the Russian Far East, therefore, as an
ideal opportunity both to expand Japanese authority in East Asia and to
shore up military–bureaucratic authority at home. By January 1918, a
Joint Committee on Military Affairs began General Staff–War Ministry
discussions for a dispatch of troops to Siberia. In April 1918, the War
Ministry decided on support for White Russian Generals Dimitry
Leonidovich Horvath and Grigory Mikhailovich Semyonov, who were fighting
from Manchuria for an independent Siberia. By May 1918, Vice Chief of
the Army General Staff Tanaka Giichi negotiated a military agreement
with China that laid the groundwork for an immediate dispatch of
Japanese troops to the core of Russia’s presence in Manchuria, the
Chinese Eastern Railway. By the first arrival of Japanese troops in the
Russian Far East in August 1918, in other words, the Siberian
Intervention had become an overwhelmingly Imperial Army show, and
Yamagata Aritomo and his army protégés would use the occasion to flood
the Russian Far East with 72,000 troops.<br />
<br />
<br />
Despite the scale of its operations in Siberia, Tokyo’s most
significant gain in the First World War was the cumulative effect that
all of its activities had upon its international status. Although it had
entered the war as a rising regional power, by the Paris Peace
Conference Japan had joined the ranks of world powers. Japanese
delegates joined the official governing body of the conference, the
Council of Ten, to participate in discussions of the most weighty issues
of world peace. As Prime Minister Hara Takashi proudly proclaimed in
January 1920, “as one of five great powers, the empire [Japan]
contributed to the recovery of world peace. With this, the empire’s
status has gained all the more authority and her responsibility to the
world has become increasingly weighty.”<br />
<br />
<br />
Japan’s new authority at Paris rested, of course, upon a record of
Japanese participation in the Entente going back to the earliest days of
war in August 1914. While Japan had, as we have seen, jumped at the
opportunity to vastly expand its own interests and authority in the
Asia/Pacific region, its record of military operations from 1914 through
1918 highlights an unprecedented level of Japanese cooperation with an
allied cause. Japan’s siege of Qingdao was carried out in the autumn of
1914 by 29,000 Imperial Army troops in tandem with 2,800 British
imperial forces. Two task forces of the Imperial Navy chased ships from
the German East Asiatic Squadron and ultimately occupied German islands
north of the equator on their own in September 1914. But Imperial Navy
operations in the Indian Ocean exemplify the critical reliance of the
far-flung British Empire on al- lied aid. Japanese ships played a key
role in the mobilization of the British Empire between 1914 and 1918,
conveying Australian and New Zealand troops from the Pacific through the
Indian Ocean to Aden in the Arabian Sea. And, following attacks on
Japanese merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, three Japanese destroyer
divisions and one cruiser (thirteen ships in all) in February 1917
joined the allied fight against German submarines there.<br />
<br />
<br />
Where Japanese troops were not directly involved, substantial
Japanese aid flowed. Several Japanese Red Cross units operated in allied
capitals throughout the war, and Japan supplied badly needed shipping,
copper, and monies to the allies, including 640 million yen in loans. To
the Russians, Japan sold 600,000 desperately needed rifles. According
to one contemporary Western observer, “if this help had been denied, the
collapse of Russia would have come long before it did.” Indeed, the
lengths to which members of the Entente and the Central Powers eagerly
sought Japanese aid and support from the outset of the war is
astonishing and exemplifies, again, the incredible global stakes of the
conflict. The German ambassador to Japan, Count Graf von Rex, was so
distressed by the prospect of Japanese support of the Entente in early
August 1914 that, in an audience with Japanese Foreign Minister Katô
Takaaki, he broke the chair upon which he was sitting and almost tumbled
to the floor. German and Austrian representatives in European capitals
approached Japanese representatives several times in the first two years
of war over the possibility of a separate peace.<br />
<br />
<br />
Given Japan’s early commitment to the Entente, expectations among
Japan’s allies were even greater. Despite initial misgivings about the
scope of Japanese actions in Asia in early August 1914, Britain
petitioned in September 1914 for troops from Japan to the Western Front.
With the fall of Qingdao, allied requests for aid snowballed. On 6
November 1914, British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey urged Britain’s
ambassador to Tokyo to ask that a Japanese force “take part in the main
operations of war in France, Belgium and Germany in the same way as our
Army is doing, and to fight alongside of our soldiers on the continent
of Europe.” Soon after, French newspapers reported informal French
requests for 500,000 Japanese troops to join Serbia in operations on the
Balkan Peninsula. As late as July of 1918, the US Navy declared it a
“matter of vital necessity” that Japanese battle cruisers help protect
US troop transports across the Atlantic.<br />
<br />
<br />
Given the constant wrangling between Japan and its allies over the
Siberian Intervention, historians have viewed the operation as the most
egregious example of autonomous Japanese action during the First World
War. In the context of incessant allied requests for Japanese aid from
1914, however, the expedition should be recognized, as well, as another
glimpse of the enormous global reach of the First World War. The Russian
Revolution of November 1917 and conclusion of a separate peace with
Germany the following March marked a serious strategic blow to the
Entente. Not only did it mean the collapse of the Russian front, given
the rabidly anti-Western Bolshevik regime newly ensconced in Moscow; the
future of the entire Russian Empire was thrown into question.<br />
<br />
<br />
Stretched
to the limit on the Western Front, Britain and France turned to the
United States to lead the effort to shore up allied-friendly elements
within the Russian Empire. But in the context of four years of allied
calls for more Japanese aid, the Entente held high hopes for Japanese
participation, as well. At the very moment that the American Secretary
of the Navy approached Japan’s ambassador to the US about possible
Japanese battle cruisers to the Atlantic, Washington formally invited
Japanese troops to join British, French, Italian, American, and Canadian
forces in Siberia.<br />
<br />
<br />
Long before the Paris Peace Conference, in other words, the enormous
global ramifications of the Great War had spurred desperate pleas for
Japanese help and had catapulted Japan to a prominent position on the
world stage.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-55081387641782197292016-08-04T23:16:00.001-07:002016-08-04T23:16:28.920-07:00The Forgotten Armies of the Western Front – 1914 to 1918<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2014/07/31/the-forgotten-armies-of-the-western-front-1914-to-1918-2/">The Forgotten Armies of the Western Front - 1914 to 1918</a></h4>
EIGHT MILLION MEN fought in the British Army during the First World War. More than half of them (5 million) served in France and Flanders on the Western Front. [1] These men came from the U.K. as well as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India and even the West Indies.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-35952119026255773852016-08-04T23:13:00.001-07:002016-08-04T23:13:29.848-07:00Knock-Out Punch at Dobro Polje – Six Facts About the Forgotten Battle That Ended WW1<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2016/02/24/knock-out-blow-at-dobro-polje-six-facts-about-the-obscure-battle-that-ended-ww1/">Knock-Out Punch at Dobro Polje - Six Facts About the Forgotten Battle That Ended WW1</a></h4>
WHEN GERMANY signed the Armistice on Nov. 11, 1918, the Central Powers were still in a strong position (at least on paper). The Kaiser had already pushed Montenegro, Romania, and Russia out of the war; occupied Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, large parts of Poland and the Ukraine; and secured access to natural resources in the east.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-10919954768228733312016-03-11T01:13:00.001-08:002016-03-11T01:13:07.630-08:00SALONIKA, 1915–18<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOnXEReDk6BbnCG8POrkIQ2na0kg7Tc9JtNPqT0OwEqCmNn-bEl0dByGg1bf-BrAH2HYVXKCd2kZ8J2KK2VB4ou4cLTwq7BV_zQFnCimQw6DuKzLsWz9xwtn-gwQqnvjpIg4jumMc_6lq3/s1600/nfxnfx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="302" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOnXEReDk6BbnCG8POrkIQ2na0kg7Tc9JtNPqT0OwEqCmNn-bEl0dByGg1bf-BrAH2HYVXKCd2kZ8J2KK2VB4ou4cLTwq7BV_zQFnCimQw6DuKzLsWz9xwtn-gwQqnvjpIg4jumMc_6lq3/s400/nfxnfx.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<strong><em>British 18-pdr field gun firing from a camouflaged position on the Doiran Front.</em></strong><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6l7q6FIBhyphenhyphen_-AaUbhs2CtBGLuCNHJkHfPIgovgutCY05OortrRLhFPWz6375QZDUuBiQcfuNAJX3XIwMIXsIDgxqxxuM3Nkyc8j0z3NrOCosqTIq4Oe7aOECrPSraRfneP4U5lYOERL9I/s1600/serbia_1915.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6l7q6FIBhyphenhyphen_-AaUbhs2CtBGLuCNHJkHfPIgovgutCY05OortrRLhFPWz6375QZDUuBiQcfuNAJX3XIwMIXsIDgxqxxuM3Nkyc8j0z3NrOCosqTIq4Oe7aOECrPSraRfneP4U5lYOERL9I/s400/serbia_1915.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
The Salonika campaign had its genesis in the bold strategic action
taken by the Germans to shore up the Austro-Hungarian position in the
Balkans in 1915. This was bad news for the Serbians, who had hitherto
been waging war with relative success against the Austro-Hungarian Army
since the outbreak of war in 1914. By September it had become apparent
to the Allies that only a show of force could prevent the Bulgarians
from taking advantage of the situation by attacking Serbia. The question
was, could such a demonstration be arranged? With the Austrian Navy a
threat in the Adriatic and the absence of harbours capable of supporting
any serious expeditionary force on the Albanian coast, this left only
the Greek port of Salonika as a feasible base for the launch of such a
campaign. Greece was both torn from within and fearful of being drawn
actively into the war. Although technically victorious in the Balkan
Wars, the Greeks had still suffered a painful experience which they
would rather not repeat quite so soon. So, at the outbreak of the Great
War, Greece remained neutral, although this did not prevent bitter
internal political battles ensuing over which side it should favour.<br />
<br />
King Constantine naturally favoured the Central Powers, having been
educated and carried out his military service in Germany; indeed, he was
married to the Kaiser’s sister, Sophia. But the Greek Prime Minister,
Eleutherios Venizelos had long favoured the Allies and saw their
intervention as a means of expanding Greek influence in the Balkans. As
the threat to Serbia became more acute and a Bulgarian intervention
appeared more likely, the Allies attempted to bully Greece using
Venizelos as the ‘inside man’ who made the initial offer to allow an
Anglo-French force to land at Salonika. If the justification was the
greater good, it was certainly not the interests of Greece that
motivated the Allies.<br />
<br />
For the Allies, to generate a suitable Salonika Expeditionary Force
(SEF) to intervene in the Balkans was no easy matter. It was only the
acceptance of the total failure of the Gallipoli operations that allowed
the French to contribute their 156th Division, previously known as the
2nd Division (CEO), while the British sent the 10th Division commanded
by Lieutenant General Sir Bryan Mahon. In overall command was the French
General Maurice Sarrail. He was an interesting character, a politically
left-leaning general who had done well during the opening campaigns in
France in 1914, but who had then fallen foul of Joffre and had been
dismissed in July 1915. Sarrail had some powerful friends, but also some
equally powerful enemies, so the French military authorities considered
that the command of the SEF would be an ideal compromise posting for
him: it was a serious appointment, but a long way from the Western
Front.<br />
<br />
The first Allied troops began to disembark at Salonika port on 5
October 1915. Bulgaria had still not joined the war, but there was a
more immediate complication in a violent disagreement between King
Constantine and Venizelos over what in effect was a flagrant breech of
Greek neutrality. The Greek prime minister was forced to resign and a
prolonged period of political instability ensued. But in the end the
Greeks offered no resistance to the Allies’ presence at Salonika. Yet
what exactly were they there to do? When, on 6 October, Mackensen
launched his offensive against Serbia, joined shortly afterwards by the
Bulgarians, it was evident that whatever the SEF had been meant to
achieve had been rendered redundant. Mahon had been given cautious
orders from London, requiring him to stay close to Salonika pending the
final decision of the Greek government as to whether to abandon
neutrality, but Sarrail was determined to push inland anyway. He crossed
the Serbian border on 15 October and advanced into the Vardar Valley
with the intention of supporting the Serb forces. The most he could hope
to achieve was to hold open a line of retreat for the Serbs. When the
British finally moved forward, in early November, it was all far too
little, too late, and, with hindsight, probably best not at all. The
Serbian Army was already defeated, its remnants falling back towards the
Adriatic coast. As they congregated in the small ports up and down the
Albanian coast they were eventually to be rescued by the Royal Navy.
Some 250,000 Serbian troops were evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu.
It was a massive undertaking and must have appeared of little real
military value as the emaciated Serbian scarecrows boarded the ships.
Yet, given the chance to recover, new men would rise from what appeared
like worthless dregs – some six Serbian divisions would eventually
return to serve on the Salonika Front.<br />
<br />
As the British and French fell back, they formed a line just inside
the Greek border to try and hold back the Bulgarians. The British wanted
to evacuate, but the French would not consider it. This attitude may
seem inexplicable, given that a vital part of France was occupied by the
German Army, but significant sections of the French political and
military establishment considered the war there to be a hopeless
stalemate and that another avenue must be taken to achieve victory. In
this they were enthusiastically supported by the arch ‘Easterner’, the
British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, who was quite
obsessed with dreams of a breakthrough in the Balkans. In the end the
French had their way and once again the British would ignore their
better instincts in the cause of alliance warfare. The Salonika Front
became a permanent fixture for the rest of the war: fighting the
Bulgarians for reasons that seem opaque to this day. Clearly if they
were to stay the Allies needed reinforcements, so the British 22nd,
26th, 27th, 28th and (temporarily) 60th Divisions were despatched, while
the French allotted more and more reserves to the campaign until they
had nine divisions serving in Salonika. The reconstituted Serbian
divisions began to arrive from Corfu from April 1916. The Italians sent a
division and even the Russians contributed a brigade. Sarrail was
confirmed as commander of this Armée d’Orient. The truth of Clausewitz’s
dictum ‘always direct [our] principal operation against the main body
of the enemy army’ was to be demonstrated by the failure of the Allies
to observe it.2 Despite all their efforts, the Allies still only had
enough forces to defend themselves, and not enough to attack with much
hope of success. As the Bulgarians were forbidden to press into Greece
by the Germans, fearful of triggering direct Greek involvement in the
war, there they would stay in a static oblivion that made a mockery of
the fantasies of the ‘Easterners’.<br />
<br />
Sarrail had his work cut out just building up the logistical
framework within which his polyglot army could exist. Salonika itself
was almost swamped as it was required to act simultaneously as a port,
the main supply base depot and as a huge entrenched camp. Communications
with the front lines were not good, with a paucity of roads and a long
march beckoning for most of the newly arrived troops. The weather was
also not conducive to the soldiers’ health: too hot in summer and far
too bitterly cold in winter, especially in the mountain regions. There
were also severe problems in controlling the endemic malaria which
plagued the area. There was a plethora of pools, ponds and lakes, all of
which provided the perfect habitat for the mosquitoes and any stagnant
water soon became infested with their larvae. This was a concern that
would endure throughout the campaign. Anti-malaria measures were vital,
necessitating a constant vigilance in eradicating unnecessary standing
water and regular issues of quinine to every man.<br />
<br />
<em>Any stranger seeing a soldier dressed up in anti-mosquito garb
would for the first time imagine himself face to face with a scarecrow.
The face and arms are thoroughly smeared with an anti-mosquito
preparation called ‘parakit’, an excellent thing whilst it lasts; but
its tendency is, of course, to get absorbed into the skin after an hour
or two, and one often had to smear on a second coating. The mosquitoes
didn’t like it, though, and always kept very clear of a ‘parakit’ face. I
can recommend it to any young lady worried by an over-zealous admirer!
After this, shorts were turned down and tucked up into the top of the
puttees, thus safeguarding the knee. Thick gloves were worn, attached by
a piece of tape running through the arms and under the tunic over the
back. Over the tin hat was worn a mosquito net veil, which, like that
apparatus worn by a bee-keeper, rendered the face and neck immune from
danger.</em><br />
<em>Second Lieutenant Richard Skilbeck-Smith, 1st Leinster Regiment</em><br />
<br />
Despite all these preventative measures the British would suffer over
162,000 cases of malaria during the campaign. Outbreaks of dysentery
also weakened the troops, especially those who had already suffered at
Gallipoli. Morale was a problem throughout the entire army, indeed many
of the units were not of the highest quality and the overall situation
in Salonika did little to inspire any great élan.<br />
Sarrail was also forced to grapple with a complex political situation
as Constantine maintained what might be called unfriendly neutrality
after the fall of the Venizelos government. This was not unnatural as
the French were very high-handed, first bringing the whole Salonika
region under military control and then instituting a naval blockade to
force the Greek government to adopt a less pro-German aspect. The
position of the Allies was undoubtedly morally suspect in their
treatment of a supposedly independent neutral country.<br />
<br />
There was a further complication in that the success of the Russian
offensive directed against Austria-Hungary in June 1916 had triggered
the ambitions of Rumania to share in any spoils of war. This was very
welcome to the Allies, for the Rumanian Army was some 400,000 strong and
so obviously a valuable addition to the Allied forces. But one
condition of Rumanian participation was a Salonikan offensive to pin
down the Bulgarian Army. As the British, under the sway of the Westerner
CIGS General Sir William Robertson, were still markedly unenthusiastic,
Sarrail planned an attack mainly by Serbian and French troops on the
left and centre, which entailed the British taking over the front line
covering the Serbian border between the Vardar River and Lake Doiran.
Despite the complication of a Bulgarian offensive which had to be
countered in August, the French and Serbian assault began in
mid-September. Although some gains were made – including a tiny symbolic
corner of Serbia at Monastir – the onset of the Balkan winter brought
the offensive to an inconclusive end in December. Meanwhile the chimera
of a pan-Balkan alliance to sweep away Austria-Hungary was exposed by
the humiliating defeat of the Rumanian forces by a combined German,
Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian army. And so once again the Allied
Salonika forces were left busy doing nothing.<br />
<br />
In early 1917, Sarrail was given the role of ‘fixing’ as many Central
Powers resources as possible while Nivelle won the war with his
much-vaunted offensive on the Western Front in April. But Sarrail,
perhaps recognising that his forces were achieving little of substance,
resolved to launch his own major offensive that April. In this ambitious
attack, the British Salonika Force, now commanded by Lieutenant General
Sir George Milne, would for the first time play a major role, by
attacking in the Struma Valley. Milne demurred, fearing that the
low-lying valley, which was riddled with mosquitoes, was not a suitable
arena for a major battle and instead suggested an attack on Bulgarian
positions in the hill country west of Lake Doiran, thereby threatening
the tactically significant Kosturino Pass. The terrain was tortuous,
with deep ravines, steep-sided ridges and hills rising to 2,000 feet.
The hills had been converted into a fortress by a series of trench lines
carved out of the rock creating a defensive barrier some two miles
deep. Although the aim of the British attack was initially only to take
the Bulgarian first line, this was still an extremely tough proposition.
After a sadly inadequate three-day barrage, the 22nd and 26th Divisions
made a night attack with Zero Hour at 21.45 on 24 April. When the
attack came it was certainly no surprise to the Bulgarian artillery, who
laid down an effective barrage on the British front lines before
shrapnel fizzed across the torn ground of No Man’s Land. The experiences
of the men of the 10th Devonshire Regiment, given the thankless task of
assaulting the imposing mass of the Petit Couronné, were not untypical.<br />
<br />
<em>Our guns had been blasting away all day blowing up the barbed
wire and the front line trenches. As soon as it got dark we moved out of
our trenches and down one side of the hill to get in the lower end of
Jumeaux Ravine, ‘Johnny’ knew we were on the move and our route – they
gave us a right pasting. We soon had many casualties. They seemed to
know our every move. We got so far in the ravine and then it was hell
let loose. Our lads were being knocked over like ninepins. We that were
able, got about halfway, the noise of the explosions was terrific.
Suddenly I found myself alone. We had to walk behind each other as it
was not very wide. My mates behind and in front were knocked out, one
poor chap was calling out for his mother, I was nearly choked with
cordite fumes, but I was unhurt, not even blown over and my bag of bombs
was untouched. I had to go on. I picked my way over the bodies, I could
only see by the flash of the explosions.</em><br />
<em>Private Francis Mullins, 10th Devonshire Regiment</em><br />
<br />
Despite it all, the Devons managed to over-run some Bulgarian
trenches on the lower slopes of Petit Couronné. While the British tried
to get forward reinforcements across the precipitous wasteland, the
Bulgarians launched a series of increasingly furious counter-attacks.
The Petit Couronné was the key to their positions and they were
determined to eject the interlopers.<br />
<br />
<em>They came up blowing their bugles and shouting, I suppose they
thought they were going to frighten us. It was the biggest mistake they
made as we knew they were there, if they had crept up quietly in the
dark they would have got us quite easy, as there was not many of us
left. Well, they came up, I had used up all my bombs bar one, and this
one saved my life: it seems unbelievable, the pin of this bomb would not
come out – if it had I would have been blown up by my own bomb – as at
that moment they pitched one of their bombs in with us and knocked us
all out. When I came round I knew I had to get out. I then found that I
couldn’t use my right leg very well, it seemed paralysed. However, there
was another chap there who was hit in the fingers and he helped to drag
me up over the trench as it was every man for himself. We left about
three lying in the trench, we could do nothing to help them as the
Bulgars were right on top of us. I do not think that I should have got
back if it had not been for this lad sticking to me, and I haven’t seen
him from that day to this. I have thought many a time how I would like
to thank him. Going back over Petit Couronné was no joke, we fell into
the barbed wire as it was not quite daylight. There were bodies
everywhere.</em><br />
<em>Private Francis Mullins, 10th Devonshire Regiment</em><br />
<br />
He would find that the bomb fragments had cut his sciatic nerve as
well as inflicted some twenty minor wounds to his buttocks and legs. The
attack was a dismal failure, with over 3,100 casualties in sharp
contrast to just 835 lost by the successful defenders. A repeat attack
ordered for a fortnight later, at 21.50 on 8 May, in a further attempt
to pin the Bulgarians while the French and Serbs attacked to the west,
met with no more success and the loss of over 1,800 casualties. The
Serbian and French forces did no better, with any insignificant gains
soon abandoned in the face of trenchant Bulgarian counter-attacks.<br />
<br />
The failure of these offensives provoked a final crisis with the
resolutely neutral Greek government. In June 1917 the Allies forced the
abdication of Constantine and replaced him with his son, Alexander, who
was far more malleable to their point of view. Almost immediately
Venizelos, who had been running a pro-Allied government in exile on
Crete, was reinstated as Prime Minister. He promptly declared war on the
Central Powers on 27 June 1917. Most of the Balkans were now embroiled
in the Great War. But still nothing much seemed to change. Certainly,
the Greek Army seemed to lack any enthusiasm for the fray. As the
Salonika campaign staggered on, Sarrail himself would be replaced after a
change in government in France brought in the distinctly unsympathetic
Georges Clemenceau as premier in November 1917. Sarrail’s replacement
was first General Marie-Louis Guillaumat and then, on his recall to
France in June 1918, the highly regarded General Louis Franchet
d’Espèrey.<br />
<br />
In d’Espèrey the Armée d’Orient had a commander committed to an
‘Easterner’ strategy; indeed, he had proposed a Balkan offensive as long
ago as 1914. Now he managed to gain permission to launch an offensive
as long as he did not require extra troops. The main attack was to be
made by the Serbs and French through mountainous terrain to the west of
the Vardar Valley. This was even more treacherous than the Doiran
sector, but d’Espèrey had managed to assemble covertly superior forces
that outnumbered the Bulgarians by some three to one. He had also
amassed sufficient guns to deliver a bombardment that was extremely
heavy by the standards of the campaign when the offensive opened on 14
September. This time the French were successful and, after hard
fighting, managed to take the mountain peaks. In front of them lay the
valleys which would channel behind the Bulgarian lines. On 18 September
Milne was required to launch a pinning attack alongside the Greeks to
prevent the Bulgarians rushing troops to the threatened sector. The
result was disaster and the Second Battle of Doiran would cost some
7,100 British and Greek casualties. But this time the French broke
through and, on 20 September, fearing encirclement, the Bulgarians
finally abandoned their mountain fastness and began to retreat all along
the line. There was considerable elation among the British once they
realised that the Bulgarians had gone.<br />
<br />
<em>We really are on the move after the Bulgar who stole away in the
night. Our patrols were in their line by 9 last night and now we have
followed them up and infantry and guns are well inside. It was a very
hurried flitting as two deserters told us they got the order to move at 8
at 7.30. I visited a bit of their line this afternoon. They have blown
up a lot, but there are still some wonderful dugouts. The wire is
tremendous everywhere.</em><br />
<em>Captain Robert Townsend, 10th Devonshire Regiment</em><br />
<br />
Soon they were in hot pursuit.<br />
<em>It has been a tremendous day. We started off on sudden orders
about 9 and have marched hard over two tremendous passes and down to a
village called Strumnica which is at the head of the Struma Valley and
we are well into Bulgaria at last. It is a pretty country, but the dust
on the road has been simply awful. The Bulgar has gone quickly but it
has been a fearfully hard march and I didn’t get in until 10 o’clock
absolutely beat. However it is all part of a day’s work and we are
finishing off the Bulgar in great style.</em><br />
<em>Captain Robert Townsend, 10th Devonshire Regiment</em><br />
<br />
As the Allied aircraft and cavalry tore into the retreating Bulgarian
columns, they soon became a rabble. Their morale was not helped by the
unavoidable realisation that they had been following the wrong lodestar:
the news from the Western Front made it clear that Germany was defeated
and the Central Powers were doomed.<br />
<br />
On 29 September the Bulgarian forces occupying Skopje, the Serbian
capital, surrendered and a day later Bulgaria formally surrendered. It
was a bitter-sweet moment for the British Salonika Force. It had been on
the winning team; but the excitement of victory had belonged to its
allies. It had battled for the best part of three years but then had to
be content with nothing more than a secondary role in the ultimate
dénouement. Salonika proved a truly forgettable campaign – and with good
reason. Little was achieved here that victory on the Western Front
would not have secured in good time. And the cost, for the British, had
been horrendous, for although they lost only 23,787 casualties in the
actual fighting they suffered far more casualties from the pernicious
effects of disease. At the height of the British deployment over 182,500
British troops were kicking their heels, left vulnerable to the
depradations of the mosquito and malaria. There could be few more
depressing fronts than Salonika.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.dublin-fusiliers.com/salonika/salonica.html" target="_blank">LINK</a><br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-27359115085292251852016-03-11T01:08:00.006-08:002016-03-11T01:08:57.696-08:00VICTORY WITHOUT PEACE <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwEBFwOzu26X7ubXwFzMAqMoMNe_Lp4cynduUKoPGmV6b1ZxcQXNoPBM9VSoWkbZYrGqrCHVnme3n7-qrH1r9GUnlWn0U36IdLzOkiixbboJ6weNu-8sWb9P06cL3snQn_qYwdkO7gfIEi/s1600/map_europe_1923a-fr.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="271" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwEBFwOzu26X7ubXwFzMAqMoMNe_Lp4cynduUKoPGmV6b1ZxcQXNoPBM9VSoWkbZYrGqrCHVnme3n7-qrH1r9GUnlWn0U36IdLzOkiixbboJ6weNu-8sWb9P06cL3snQn_qYwdkO7gfIEi/s400/map_europe_1923a-fr.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="western">
Britain’s handling of many issues, particularly those
raised by Japan, was the product less of London’s wishes than of those
of its dominions. Billy Hughes, Australia’s prime minister, reflecting
his white population’s fear of the ‘yellow peril’, rejected Japan’s
summons for racial equality. In trying to act as broker between two
Pacific powers, the prime minister of a third, Canada, had to grapple
with his own uncertainties. Canada, Robert Borden said, was ‘a nation
that is not a nation’. For those who had been at Vimy Ridge such
reticence seemed ill-placed; the war had made Canada a nation, as it had
made Australia, New Zealand and South Africa nations. These were
developments the peace settlements were being asked to confirm. Within
Europe, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Finland and
Lithuania had all achieved independence and a measure of definition
before Woodrow Wilson even landed at Brest. The challenge he confronted
was therefore a somewhat different one from that to which his speeches
were directed. In Central and Eastern Europe war had effected change,
and for those who sought such changes it continued to do so. Indeed, the
United States’s own decision to intervene was confirmation of the same
point. War could work.</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
For that reason the First World War did not end as
neatly on 11 November as the celebration of Armistice Day suggests. ‘One
year and three days’ later, Henry Wilson wrote to Lord Esher, ’we have
between 20 and 30 wars raging in different parts of the world‘. Russia
was engaged in a civil war to define its revolution, a war in which the
allies had intervened. It included war in and for Poland. To the south
Turkey’s war hero, Mustafa Kemal, was exploiting the support of the
Bolsheviks to enable him to take on the Greeks and British in order to
re-found the Turkish nation. And the example set by Europe spread. On 27
February 1919 the French pacifist Romain Rolland wrote to the socialist
Jean-Richard Bloch, to tell him of a young Japanese friend who had just
returned home after two years observing the war in Europe and America.
’My greatest surprise‘, the Japanese had said, ’has been that there are
among you men who, truly, believe in the idealism that they profess. We
others, we Japanese, think: “Idealism is for the Europeans a political
means”. And we do not blame them; we are now going to act like them.‘</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
The notion of war’s utility was not just transmitted
across continents. It spanned generations. Children who had grown up in
the thrall of war had seen it permeate their schooling, their reading
and their games: they, too, expected to defend their nations as their
parents had done. Anna Eisenmenger, a Viennese grandmother, had three
sons and a daughter. One son was killed, one blinded, and the third lost
his reason; he killed his sister’s husband. One day in March 1920, Anna
found her grandson playing with a schoolfriend. Both ‘were wearing
soldiers’ caps … made for them out of newspaper. They had pokers in
their hands and were sitting behind the backs of armchairs “in the
trenches”. Wolfi was an “Austrian”, his friend a “Frenchman”. They were
shooting at each other. Wolfi … was playing at war.’ Boys were told of
an intensity of experience whose loss their fathers still regretted.
From it came the adventures of Biggles, written by a pilot, W E. Johns,
and of Bulldog Drummond. The latter’s creator, H. C. McNeile, wrote
under a pseudonym, ‘Sapper’, which reflected what he had done in the
war. ‘Cementing everything, crowning everything, the spirit of
camaraderie, of good fellowship’, he wrote in the preface to the
collected edition of his war stories: ‘No nightmare that, but a dream
one would only willingly repeat today.’</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
The war memorials and the war literature that today
can seem the war’s most pervasive legacy in Western Europe did not
necessarily carry the messages of waste and futility that are now
associated with them. The biggest memorial in Germany, erected at
Tannenberg in 1927, trumpeted a victory. For many Entente veterans,
Armistice Day was a focus for reunions and drinking, for celebration as
well as commemoration. Wives and mothers were scandalised, unable to
comprehend any response except overwhelming grief. About 10 million
soldiers died in the war. Twice that number bore the scars of wounds _
some so mutilated in body or mind as to be unfit for further work and
unable to lead fulfilled lives. Calculations of civilian dead remain
inadequate, partly because so many deaths were indirect, the result of
starvation or disease rather than of bullets or shells, and partly
because they were forgotten in the war’s immediate aftermath. Globally
up to 20 million succumbed in the influenza epidemic which swept from
Asia through Europe and on to America in 1918-19. But the bereaved were
not forgotten, because one of the purposes of mourning was to remember.
‘Every day one meets saddened women, with haggard faces and lethargic
movements, and one dare not ask after husband or son’, Beatrice Webb
wrote in her diary on 17 November 1918.</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
Those who mourned needed to find meaning in their
loss. When the British struck their Victory Medal for issue to all those
who had served, they provided one answer: ‘For Civilisation’, it said.
It was a theme which linked the ideas of 1914 to the war’s outcome, and
it was repeated throughout the British Empire and in France. In Germany
the city of Hamburg commissioned Ernst Barlach to design a memorial to
its 40,000 ‘sons’ killed in action. A stele, it has on one side another
recurrent image in war memorials, the mother and child, equating the
grieving mother with the Madonna. Five years later, in 1936, the 76th
Infantry Regiment responded to Barlach’s memorial with one of its own:
erected near that commemorating Hamburg’s dead of 1870, it linked the
past to the future, declaring on its oblong block, ’Germany must live
even if we must die.‘</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
By then the allies’ memories of victory were fading.
‘Armistice Day ceased to exist as a restaurant orgy: the Two Minutes
Silence took its place’, as Ian Hay noted with irony. The trophies that
had stood by the memorials, the captured guns and trench mortars
symbolic of triumph, were removed, and only the memorials remained. The
idea that the war had purpose languished. In 1926 Lance-Corporal John
Jackson, who had served on the western front between 1915 and 1918,
wrote his memoirs. ‘Let it ever be remembered’, he prefaced his story,
that, but for British intervention, ‘German “Kultur” would dominate us
all, and only those who saw it in force, in parts of France and Belgium
occupied by German forces, can understand the humiliation such a
situation would have entailed.‘ It was a plea which fell on increasingly
deaf ears. A year later, in 1927, the dead of his regiment, the Cameron
Highlanders, were commemorated with the opening of the Scottish
National War Memorial in Edinburgh Castle, in itself evidence of another
nation which used the war to shape its identity. In the memorial’s
guide-book, Ian Hay noted with bemusement the change in attitudes over
the years since the armistice. ’War has become a monstrous, unspeakable
thing‘, he acknowledged. However, he insisted, there was more to its
comprehension than that. ’Our reactions and emotions upon the subject of
recent history are at present too fluid to have any lasting value. We
must leave it to Time to crystallize them.</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
In 1929 Erich Maria Remarque published Im Westen
nichts Neues (All Quiet on the Western Front), a book which at a stroke
revived the by-then flagging market for war literature. Within a year
Remarque’s book was translated into twenty-eight languages, sold nearly 4
million copies, and became an academy-award winning film. And yet it
was less about the war than about the problems of a generation unable to
reintegrate itself with post-war society. Its message was one of
shattered illusions, a theme often echoed in what Ian Hay called ‘the
new style War novels’. In the 1920s there had been many interpretations
of the war; thereafter one increasingly dominated over the others. It
created a barrier between our understanding of the war and that of those
who fought in it. Even those who survived came to see it in terms
different from those which they embraced at the time. Hindsight bred
arrogance, and _ worse _ misconception. Many of the ideologies which had
given the war meaning became loaded, larded with later connotations.</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
The Second World War irrevocably demonstrated that
the First World War was not, after all, the war to end all wars. But it
also enabled posterity to have it both ways. It venerated the writers
who condemned the war of 1914-18 but at the same time condemned those
who embraced appeasement, the logical corollary. War literature and
appeasement both derived their appeal from the same basic liberalism
which had underpinned the ideals of the peacemakers at Versailles.
Liberalism’s comparative failure in the inter-war years was in large
part due to its own fundamental decency. It lost the determination to
enforce its own standards, a quality it possessed in 1914 and 1917, and
it was reluctant to assert itself in the internal politics of states
that deviated from democratic norms.</div>
<div class="western">
The issues of course did not present themselves in
such clear-cut fashion. One reason why Adolf Hitler could appeal to the
German people in 1933 was precisely because many genuinely convinced
themselves that they had been wronged in 1919. But that of itself does
not explain the Second World War. Hitler was able to play back some of
the themes of German popular mobilisation in the First World War – the
ideas of the Burgfrieden in 1914, the Fatherland Party’s appeal to
national unity over party loyalty, OberOst’s notion of Germany’s mission
in the east, the expectation that a Second Punic War might be necessary
to complete the agenda of the First. Above all, the Kaiser’s failure as
supreme warlord generated a belief that a real leader would have
delivered a German victory. But by 1918 Germans had also learnt what
modern war entailed. They did not take to the streets to show their
enthusiasm when war broke out in 1939. The Second World War is
inexplicable without knowledge of the First, but there is no
inevitability linking Versailles and the ambitions of the peacemakers to
its outbreak.</div>
<div class="western">
<br /></div>
<div class="western">
The First World War broke the empires of Germany,
Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. It triggered the Russian Revolution
and provided the bedrock for the Soviet Union; it forced a reluctant
United States on to the world stage and revivified liberalism. On
Europe’s edge, it provided a temporary but not a long-term solution to
the ambitions of the Balkan nations. Outside Europe it laid the seeds
for the conflict in the Middle East. In short it shaped not just Europe
but the world in the twentieth century. It was emphatically not a war
without meaning or purpose.</div>
<br />
<br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-7088264396557062152015-09-13T11:49:00.000-07:002015-09-13T11:49:26.121-07:00Bombing Bulgaria I<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Bombing of Sofia in World War II, 1944.</i></b></div>
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The modern aerial bomb, with its distinctive elongated
shape, stabilizing fins, and nose-fitted detonator, is a Bulgarian invention.
In the Balkan War of 1912, waged by Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro
(the Balkan League) against Turkey, a Bulgarian army captain, Simeon Petrov,
adapted and enlarged a number of grenades for use from an airplane. They were
dropped on a Turkish railway station on October 16, 1912, from an Albatros F.2
biplane piloted by Radul Milkov. Petrov afterward modified the design by adding
a stabilizing tail and a fuse designed to detonate on impact, and the six-kilogram
bomb became the standard Bulgarian issue until 1918. The plans of the so-called
Chataldzha bomb were later passed on to Germany, Bulgaria’s ally during the
First World War. The design, or something like it, soon became standard issue
in all the world’s first air forces.</div>
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Petrov’s invention came back to haunt Bulgaria during the
Second World War. On November 14, 1943, a force of ninety-one American B-25
Mitchell bombers escorted by forty-nine P-38 Lightning fighters attacked the
marshaling yards in the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. The bombing was spread over a
wide area, including three villages. The raid destroyed some of the rail
system, the Vrajedna airfield, and a further 187 buildings, resulting in around
150 casualties. A second attack ten days later by B-24 Liberator bombers was
less successful. There was poor weather across southern Bulgaria, and only
seventeen of the force reached what they hoped was Sofia and bombed through
cloud, hitting another seven villages around the capital. The attacks were enough
to spread panic through the city. In the absence of effective air defenses or
civil defense measures, thousands fled to the surrounding area. The Royal
Bulgarian Air Force, though equipped with sixteen Messerschmitt Me109G fighters
supplied by Bulgaria’s ally Germany, could do little against raids that, though
not entirely unexpected, came as a complete surprise when they happened.</div>
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The raid in November 1943 was not the first attack on a
Bulgarian target during the war, though it was the heaviest and most
destructive so far. Bulgaria became a target only because of the decision taken
in March 1941 by the Bulgarian government, after much hesitation, to tie the
country to Germany by signing the Tripartite Pact, which had been made among
the principal Axis powers, Germany, Italy, and Japan, the previous September.
When in the spring of 1941 German forces were based in Bulgaria to attack
Greece and Yugoslavia, the RAF sent a force of six Wellington bombers to bomb
the Sofia rail links in order to hamper the concentration of German troops. A
British night raid on April 13 made a lucky hit on an ammunition train, causing
major fires and widespread destruction. Further small raids occurred on July 23
and August 11, 1941, which the Bulgarian government blamed on the Soviet air
force. Although Bulgaria did not actively participate in the Axis invasion of
the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, it gave supplies to Germany and allowed
German ships to use the major ports of Varna and Burgas. On September 13, 1942,
a further small Soviet raid hit Burgas, where German ships laden with
oil-drilling equipment were awaiting the signal to cross the Black Sea to
supply German engineers with the materials they would need to restart
production once the Caucasus oilfields had been captured. The Soviet Union was
not at war with Bulgaria and denied the intrusions in 1941 and 1942, for which
it was almost certainly responsible, but the attacks were of such small scale
that the Bulgarian government did not insist on reparations.</div>
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The handful of pinprick attacks in 1941 and 1942 were enough
to make Bulgaria anxious about what might happen if the Allies ever did decide
to bomb its cities heavily. Bulgaria’s position in the Second World War was an
ambiguous one. The tsar, Boris III, did not want his country to be actively
engaged in fighting a war after the heavy territorial and financial losses
Bulgaria had sustained in the peace settlement of 1919 as punishment for
joining with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the First World War. Only with great
reluctance and under German pressure did the Prime Minister, Bogdan Filov,
declare war on Britain and the United States on December 13, 1941. Aware of
Bulgaria’s vulnerability, the government and the tsar wanted to avoid an actual
state of belligerence with the Western powers, just as the country had refused
to declare war on the Soviet Union. Bulgaria’s small armed forces therefore
undertook no operations against the Allies; instead they were used by the
Germans as occupation troops in Macedonia and Thrace, territories given to
Bulgaria after the German defeat of Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941. By 1943 it
was evident to the Bulgarian government and people that they had once again
backed the wrong side. Much of the population was anti-German and some of it
pro-Soviet. In 1942 a left-wing Fatherland Front had been formed, demanding an
end to the war and the severing of links with Germany. Partisan movements in
the occupied territories and in Bulgaria itself became more active during 1943,
and in August of that year they launched a major recruitment drive. The
partisans were chiefly communist and campaigned not only for an end to the war
but for a new social order and closer ties with the Soviet Union. In May 1943
and again in October, Filov authorized contacts with the Western Allies to see
whether there was a possibility of reaching an agreement. He was told that only
unconditional surrender and the evacuation of the occupied territories could be
accepted.</div>
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It is against this background that sense can be made of the
Allied decision to launch a series of heavy air attacks on Bulgarian cities.
Knowing that Bulgaria was facing a mounting crisis, caught between its German
ally and the growing threat of a likely Soviet victory, Allied leaders were
encouraged to use bombing as a political tool in the hope that it might produce
a quick dividend by forcing Bulgaria out of the war. The idea that bombing was
capable of a sudden decisive blow by demoralizing a population and causing a
government crisis had been at the heart of much interwar thinking about the use
of airpower. It was the logic of the most famous statement of this principle,
made in 1921 by the Italian general Giulio Douhet in his classic study The
Command of the Air (Il dominio dell’aria). The principle was also a central
element in the view of airpower held by the British Prime Minister, Winston
Churchill, who had previously applied it to both Germany and Italy. It was not
by chance that in a meeting with the British chiefs of staff on October 19,
1943, it was Churchill who would suggest that in his view the Bulgarians were a
“peccant people to whom a sharp lesson should be administered.” Their fault was
to have sided once again with the Germans despite, Churchill claimed, his
efforts to get them to see sense. Bombing was designed to undo the cord that
bound Bulgaria to her German patron.</div>
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The sharp lesson was to be a heavy bombing attack on Sofia.
Churchill justified the operation on political grounds: “Experience shows,” he
told the meeting, “that the effect of bombing a country where there were
antagonistic elements was not to unite those elements, but rather to increase
the anger of the anti-war party.” Others present, including Air Chief Marshal
Sir Charles Portal, chief of the air staff, and the chief of the imperial
general staff, General Alan Brooke, were less keen and insisted that leaflets
should be dropped along with the bombs explaining that the Allies wanted
Bulgaria to withdraw its occupation troops and surrender (in the end leaflets
were dropped with the curious headline “This is not about Allied terror, but
about Bulgarian insanity”). But the idea of a “sharp lesson” quickly
circulated. The American military chiefs thought that Sofia was so low a
military priority that an attack was scarcely justified, but they were
impressed by the possible “great psychological effect.” Both the British and
American ambassadors in Ankara urged an attack so as to interrupt Turkish-German
commercial rail traffic. On October 24 the Anglo-American Combined Chiefs of Staff
directed General Dwight D. Eisenhower, supreme commander in the Mediterranean,
to give such a lesson as soon as this was operationally practical. The Turkish
government approved, hopeful perhaps despite neutrality to profit from
Bulgaria’s discomfiture in any postwar settlement. Churchill wanted Stalin’s
say-so as well, because Bulgaria was clearly in the Soviet sphere of interest,
and on October 29 the British foreign minister, Anthony Eden, who was in Moscow
for negotiations, was able to report back Stalin’s comment that Sofia should
certainly be bombed, as it was nothing more than “a province of Germany.”</div>
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The Bulgarian government had expected bombing for some time.
While the regime struggled to come to terms with internal dissent, the Soviet
presence in the east, and Allied demands for unconditional surrender, it also
sought ways to appease the Germans in case they decided to occupy Bulgaria. In
the course of 1943 the deportation of Jews from the occupied areas of Thrace
was completed, and despite the hostility of the tsar, the German authorities in
Sofia persuaded the Bulgarian government to deport native Bulgarian Jews as
well. It was agreed that they would first be transferred to twenty small towns
in the hinterland around Sofia, and in May 1943 some 16,000 Jews were taken at
short notice from the capital and parceled out among eight provinces. The Filov
government linked the Jewish policy with bombing. When the Swiss ambassador
asked Filov on humanitarian grounds to stop sending Thracian Jews to Auschwitz,
Filov retorted that talk of humanity was misconceived when the Allies were busy
obliterating the cities of Europe from the air. Moreover, when he failed to
take up a British offer in February 1943 to transport 4,500 Jewish children
from Bulgaria to Palestine, he feared that Sofia might be bombed in
retaliation. Once the Jews of Sofia had been deported to the provinces, anxiety
revived again in Bulgaria that the Allies would now no longer hesitate to bomb
for fear of killing Jews. In the end the Jews of Bulgaria escaped not only
deportation to Auschwitz but also the bombing, which left much of Sofia’s
Jewish quarter in ruins.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-77459071194991227732015-09-13T11:47:00.002-07:002015-09-13T11:47:20.518-07:00Bombing Bulgaria II<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dimitar Spisarevski (19 Jully 1916-20 December 1943) was a Bulgarian
fighter pilot known for taking down an American bomber by ramming it during the
bombing of Sofia in World War II.</i></b></div>
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It was not the Jewish question that invited Allied bombing
in November 1943, though many Bulgarians assumed that it was. The first raids
seemed to presage an onslaught of aerial punishment, and the population of the
capital gave way to a temporary panic. Yet the first two attacks in November
were followed by two desultory operations the next month and nothing more. Some
209 inhabitants in Sofia had been killed and 247 buildings damaged. The “sharp
lesson” was not sharp enough for the Allies, because it did little to encourage
Bulgaria to seek a political solution, while the military value of the attacks
was at best limited, hampered by poor bombing accuracy and gloomy Balkan weather.
On Christmas Day 1943, Churchill wrote to Eden that the “heaviest possible air
attacks” were now planned for Sofia in the hope that this might result in more
productive “political reactions.” On January 4, 1944, a large force of 108 B-17
Flying Fortresses was dispatched to Sofia, but with poor visibility the attack
was aborted after a few bombs were dropped on a bridge. Finally, on January 10,
1944, the first heavy attack was mounted by 141 B-17s, supported during the
night of January 10–11 by a force of some forty-four RAF Wellington bombers.
This attack was devastating for the Bulgarian capital: there were 750 dead and
710 seriously injured, with widespread damage to residential housing and public
buildings. The air-raid sirens failed to sound because of a power cut. This
time the population panicked entirely, creating a mass exodus. By January 16,
300,000 people had left the capital. The government abandoned the
administrative district and moved out to nearby townships. It took more than
two weeks to restore services in the capital, while much of the population
abandoned it permanently in fear of a repeat attack. On January 23 the German
ambassador telegraphed back to Berlin that the bombing had changed completely
the “psychological-political situation,” exposing the incompetence of the
authorities and raising the danger of Bulgarian defection. The government
ordered church bells to be pealed as an air-raid warning, in case of further
power cuts.</div>
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The second major raid, of January 10, did pay political
dividends. While Filov tried unsuccessfully to persuade a visiting German
general, Walter Warlimont, deputy for operations on Hitler’s staff, to mount a
revenge attack on neutral Istanbul—the consequences of which might well have
been even more disastrous for Bulgaria—most Bulgarian leaders had come to
realize that the German connection had to be severed as soon as possible and a
deal struck with the Allies. The bishop of Sofia used the occasion of the
funeral for the victims of the bombing to launch an attack on the government
for tying Bulgaria to Germany and failing to save the people from war. That
month an effort was made to get the Soviet Union to intercede with the Western
Allies to stop the bombing, but instead Moscow increased its pressure on
Bulgaria to abandon its support for the Axis. In February the first informal
contacts were made with the Allies through a Bulgarian intermediary in Istanbul
to see whether terms could be agreed upon for an armistice. Although hope for
negotiation had been the principal reason for starting the bombing, the Allied
reaction to the first Bulgarian approach following the raids was mixed.
Roosevelt wrote to Churchill on February 9 suggesting that the bombing should
now be suspended if the Bulgarians wanted to talk, a view shared by British
diplomats in the Middle Eastern headquarters in Cairo. Churchill scrawled
“why?” in the margin of the letter. He was opposed to ending the bombing
despite a recent report from the British Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC),
which observed that the first bombing in November 1943 had achieved no
“decisive political result.” He had already authorized the bombing of the
Bulgarian ports of Burgas and Varna, which were added to the list of priority
targets, subject to political considerations. In January 1944 the British War
Cabinet, in the event of a German gas attack, considered the possibility of
retaliatory gas bomb attacks against Germany and its allies, and included
Bulgaria on the list. On February 12, Churchill replied to Roosevelt that in
his view the bombing had had “exactly the effect we hoped for” and urged him to
accept the argument that bombing should continue until the Bulgarians began
full and formal negotiations: “If the medicine has done good, let them have
more of it.” Roosevelt immediately wired back his full agreement: “Let the good
work go on.”</div>
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Some of the evidence coming out of Bulgaria seemed to
support Churchill’s stance. Intelligence reports arrived detailing the rapid
expansion of both the communist partisan movement and the Fatherland Front. The
partisans contacted the Allies through a British liaison officer stationed in
Bulgaria, encouraging them to keep up the bombing in order to provoke the
collapse of the pro-German regime and help expand support for the resistance.
The partisans sent details about the central administrative area in Sofia,
bordered by the recently renamed Adolfi Hitler Boulevard, which they said was
ripe for attack; at the same time, partisan leaders asked the Allies not to
bomb the working-class districts of Sofia, from which most of their recruits
were drawn. By March the partisans were finally organized by the Bulgarian
communists into the National Liberation Revolutionary Army. As a result of the
evidence on the ground, the Western Allies, with Stalin’s continued though
secret support (the Soviet Union did not want Bulgarians to think they had
actively abetted the bombing), accepted Eden’s argument that by “turning on the
heat” on Bulgarian cities it might shortly be possible either to provoke a coup
d’état or to batter the government into suing for peace. On March 10, Sir
Charles Portal told Churchill that he had ordered heavy attacks on Sofia and
other Bulgarian cities as soon as possible.</div>
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On March 16 and then on March 29–30 the Allies launched the
most destructive attacks of all on Sofia, as well as subsidiary attacks on
Burgas, Varna, and Plovdiv in the interior, designed to disrupt rail
communications and sea traffic for the Turkish trade with Germany. The attacks
were aimed predominantly at the administrative city center of Sofia and carried
a proportion of incendiaries, 4,000 in all, in order to do to Sofia what had
been done so effectively to German targets. The raid of March 16 burned down
the royal palace; the heavy raid of March 29–30 by 367 B-17s and B-24s, this
time carrying 30,000 incendiaries, created a widespread conflagration,
destroying the Holy Synod of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, the National
Theater, several ministries, and a further 3,575 buildings, but killing only
139 of the population that had remained. The last major raid, on April 17 by
350 American bombers, destroyed a further 750 buildings and heavily damaged the
rail marshaling yard. During 1944 the death toll in Sofia was 1,165, a figure
that would have been considerably higher had it not been for the voluntary
evacuation of the capital. The incendiary attacks hastened the disintegration
of Bulgarian politics and increased support for the Soviet Union, whose armies
were now within striking distance. But only on June 20, 1944, several months
after the bombing, did the new government of Ivan Bagryanov begin formal
negotiations for an end to Bulgarian belligerency, still hoping to keep
Bulgaria’s territorial spoils and avoid Allied occupation. By this time the
Allies had lost interest in bombing Bulgaria, which slipped further down the
list of priority targets as the bombers turned their attention to Budapest and
Bucharest in the path of the oncoming Red Army.</div>
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<br /></div>
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By the summer of 1944 the Allies had other preoccupations,
and it seemed evident that Bulgarian politics had been sufficiently destabilized
by the bombing to make further attacks redundant. Nevertheless, the final
assessment of the effects of the bombing was ambivalent. In July the U.S. Joint
Chiefs of Staff prepared an evaluation of the Balkan bombings which suggested
that the psychological effects desired had largely been achieved; the report
nevertheless suggested that the enemy had sustained an effective propaganda
campaign about the high level of civilian casualties, which had undermined the
prestige of both the United States and Britain in the eyes of the Bulgarian
people. The chiefs directed that in the future any attacks in the region had to
be confined to “targets of definite military importance” and civilian
casualties minimized. The British chiefs of staff rejected the American claim,
and, in defiance of what they well knew to be the case, insisted that only
military targets had been subject to attack, even if this had involved damage
to housing and civilian deaths. Their report concluded that Allied bombers
ought always to be able to act in this way and that operations “should not be
prejudiced by undue regard for the probable scale of incidental casualties.”
This was a view consistent with everything the RAF had argued and practiced
since the switch to the deliberate bombing of German civilians in 1941.</div>
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For the historian the judgment is more complex. Bombing
almost certainly contributed to the collapse of any pro-German consensus and
strengthened the hand both of the moderate center-left in the Fatherland Front
and of the more radical partisan movement. But in the end this did not result
in a complete change of government until September 9, 1944, when the Soviet
presence produced a Fatherland Front administration dominated by the Bulgarian
Communist Party (a political outcome that neither Churchill nor Eden had wanted
from the bombing). Moreover, other factors played an important role in
Bulgarian calculations: the crisis provoked by Italian defeat and surrender in
September 1943; the German retreat in the Soviet Union; and fear of a possible
Allied Balkan invasion or of Turkish intervention. Where Churchill saw bombing
as a primitive instrument for provoking political crisis and insisted
throughout the period from October 1943 to March 1944 that this was the key to
knocking Bulgaria out of the war, the American military chiefs continued to
give preference to the bombing of Italy and Germany and were less persuaded
that a political dividend was certain. For them the bombing fitted with the
strategy of wearing down Germany’s capacity for waging war by interrupting the
supply of vital war matériel and forcing the diversion of German military units
from the imminent Normandy campaign. There was also a price to pay for the
bombing. In September 1944, following the Bulgarian surrender, some 332
American air force prisoners of war were sent by air shuttle to Istanbul and
then on to Cairo; some had been shot down while bombing Bulgaria, others on
their way to or from attacks on Romanian targets. An American report suggested
that the prisoners had been badly maltreated. Two air force prisoners were
killed by the Bulgarian police, and an estimated 175 American war dead were presumed
to be on Bulgarian territory, although only eighty-four bodies could be
located.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-62911437178672502072015-09-13T11:43:00.002-07:002015-09-13T11:43:27.176-07:00NINE GERMANS CAPTURE BELGRADE <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWA0m7Kl6tXFSAboG6tCt5wZKb-w8X87sHxoioLA3Ln-1KDthyphenhyphenBWuubI9ptJfqyV6cyqzIDfaY9g1PDVSJE_E7wTl39rx1gbYgD70OZOEoVpMmFXKVWNSZWdefBKfcDJYQBGmf5HoByFFO/s1600/dhm0587.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWA0m7Kl6tXFSAboG6tCt5wZKb-w8X87sHxoioLA3Ln-1KDthyphenhyphenBWuubI9ptJfqyV6cyqzIDfaY9g1PDVSJE_E7wTl39rx1gbYgD70OZOEoVpMmFXKVWNSZWdefBKfcDJYQBGmf5HoByFFO/s400/dhm0587.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<b><i><a href="http://www.military-art.com/mall/more.php?ProdID=23664" target="_blank">The Magician, Balkans, 11th April 1941 by David Pentland.</a> <br />Hauptsturm fuhrer Fritz Klingenberg, and the men of 2nd SS Divisions Motorcycle Reconnaissance battalion stop at the swollen banks of the River Danube. The following day he and six men, a broken down radio, and totally unsupported were to capture the Yugoslavian capital of Belgrade. </i></b><br />
<br />
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Early in 1941, the mighty German Wehrmacht was stalled in
the west at the English Channel, but Adolf Hitler and his generals were already
putting the final touches on Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet
Union. At the same time, the Führer was planning on conquering North Africa to
reach his dream of a Teutonic empire in the Middle East.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Success in these two huge endeavors hinged on the nations of
the Balkans, and Hitler wooed Bulgaria, Rumania, and Hungary into his fold.
Then, through only slightly veiled threats, Prince Peter of Yugoslavia agreed
to become Hitler’s ally, signing a pact with the Third Reich on March 24, 1941.
</div>
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<br /></div>
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In London, Prime Minister Winston Churchill was both furious
and worried. Prince Peter had assured the British leader that Yugoslavia would
remain neutral. So British agents in the capital of Belgrade coerced anti-Nazi
Yugoslavian army and air force officers into launching an armed rebellion. Key
points were seized in Belgrade, including the palace, where King Peter II was
arrested and hustled off to exile in Greece. </div>
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General Dusan Simovic´, whose office in the Air Ministry had
been the core of opposition to German penetration of Yugoslavia, took over the
reins of government. When the sun set that day, the coup had been accomplished
without bloodshed. </div>
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<br /></div>
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In Berlin, Hitler was fuming. He ordered his generals to
“destroy Yugoslavia militarily and as a national unit.” He directed that the
Luftwaffe bomb Belgrade with “unmerciful harshness.” </div>
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<br /></div>
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Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, the diminutive, white-haired chief
of the Abwehr who was in league with the British, learned of the forthcoming
bombardment, code-named Operation Punishment, and secretly warned Yugoslav
leaders. Consequently, Belgrade was declared an open city, for centuries a term
meaning a place that was not going to be defended; therefore, it should be
spared destruction. </div>
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On the morning of April 6, 1941, the Luftwaffe struck. In an
action that lasted for three days and nights, Belgrade was devastated. Some
17,000 civilians were dead in the rubble. A sickening stench of death hovered
over the once beautiful city of about a half-million population. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Hard on the heels of the massive Luftwaffe assault, German
panzer and infantry divisions surged into Yugoslavia from three sides and raced
toward Belgrade. </div>
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On the morning of April 12, a motorcycle assault company of
the SS Das Reich Panzer Division approached the city along the northern bank of
the Danube River at the eastern outskirts. The flood-swollen river seemed a
barrier to the ravaged capital because the bridge over which the motorcycle
vanguard had hoped to move had been blown up by the Yugoslavs. </div>
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Despite the seemingly insurmountable obstacles,
Hauptsturmführer (SS Captain) Fritz Klingenberg could see the prize off in the
distance, and he was determined to try to reach it even though he was far out
in front with only a relative handful of men. </div>
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A diligent search turned up one motorboat, and in mid-afternoon,
Klingenberg, along with a platoon leader, two sergeants, and five privates,
scrambled into the small boat and headed for the far bank. Although nearly
swamped by the raging river several times, the craft made the crossing. The SS
men jumped onto the sandy shore, and Klingenberg waved his men onward, bound on
a seemingly impossible task—capturing the sprawling capital with only himself
and eight men. </div>
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Klingenberg banked on two factors—stealth and surprise. The
Yugoslavs were still bogged down in confusion from the Luftwaffe bombing, and
they wouldn’t be expecting to encounter a tiny band of German soldiers in the
center of the city. The scenario unfolded almost precisely as the SS captain
had envisioned. </div>
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Soon after leaving their motorboat, the SS group ran onto a
contingent of twenty Yugoslavian soldiers. Shocked to encounter an enemy force
in Belgrade, they surrendered without firing a shot. Minutes later, several
military trucks loaded with soldiers approached the Germans, who fired a few
rounds, and the mesmerized Yugoslavians capitulated. </div>
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The gods of war were still smiling on Klingenberg. One of
the prisoners was an ethnic German who volunteered to be a guide and
interpreter. </div>
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Taking over the captured trucks, Klingenberg and his eight
soldiers headed for the Yugoslavian war ministry, but they found it an empty
shell: the high command apparently had fled. So the SS men drove to the German
legation, where the military attaché, who had remained during the Luftwaffe
bombardment, greeted the newcomers enthusiastically. He was astonished,
however, to learn that Klingenberg and only a few men had been masquerading as
the entire potent Das Reich Panzer Division. </div>
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If the military attaché was stunned, no doubt Yugoslavian
civilian authorities would also believe that an entire German division had
penetrated the city. So Klingenberg launched a bold bluff. A Nazi swastika flag
was run up the legation’s flagpole, and Klingenberg sent a Yugoslavian civilian
to contact the mayor and tell him that Belgrade was in control of the Das Reich
Division. </div>
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Two hours later, the mayor and several of his top officials
arrived at the German legation to formally surrender. The trick had worked
magnificently. It was not until the next day that panzers roared into Belgrade
to back up Klingenberg and his eight men.</div>
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#</div>
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There was some confusion over who had captured Belgrade
since three separate attacks were converging on the Yugoslav capital. The 8th
Panzer Division, part of the German 2nd Army, was off the air for nearly 24
hours and then at 11.52 on April 15 the division's operations officer reported:
"During the night the 8.Panzer-Division drove into Belgrade, occupied the
city, and hoisted the Swastika flag". </div>
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However, the 2nd Army had better communications with
Panzergruppe 1, who signalled before the 8th Panzer Division:
"Panzergruppe von Kleist has taken Belgrade from the south. Patrols of
Infanterie-Regiment 'Gross Deutschland' have entered the city from the north.
With General von Kleist at the head, the 11 Panzer-Division has been rolling
into the capital since 06.32".</div>
<br />
<br />
<br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-37050372859435095612015-09-13T11:36:00.002-07:002015-09-13T11:36:53.208-07:00The Salonika Campaign<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWv1mZM5Akam37i392HytGUJgYuRJjcN9NHVoKtDvD_ncfnQqyhMCs3IchCi7kKIpCTB9C-o04LMIGvMe5hMLzvwkE18kObcPK_icsmrBbgaYyzxTCCSyokbwRL9khJaOQYifte2eZaeqR/s1600/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="302" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWv1mZM5Akam37i392HytGUJgYuRJjcN9NHVoKtDvD_ncfnQqyhMCs3IchCi7kKIpCTB9C-o04LMIGvMe5hMLzvwkE18kObcPK_icsmrBbgaYyzxTCCSyokbwRL9khJaOQYifte2eZaeqR/s400/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the western powers, whom the Bulgarians felt had done nothing to help them. The government aligned Bulgaria with Germany and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. But Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) were all in possession of lands heavily populated by Bulgarians and thus perceived as Bulgarian.<br />
<br />Bulgaria, recuperating from the Balkan Wars, sat out the first year of World War I. When Germany promised to restore the boundaries of the Treaty of San Stefano, Bulgaria, which had the largest army in the Balkans, declared war on Serbia in October 1915. Britain, France and Italy then declared war on Bulgaria.<br />
<br />Although Bulgaria, in alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, won military victories against Serbia and Romania, occupying much of Southern Serbia (taking Nish, Serbia's war capital in November 5), advancing into Greek Macedonia, and taking Dobruja from the Romanians in September 1916, the war soon became unpopular with the majority of Bulgarian people, who suffered enormous economic hardship. The Russian Revolution of February 1917 had a significant effect in Bulgaria, spreading antiwar and anti-monarchist sentiment among the troops and in the cities.<br />In September 1918 the Serbs, British, French, Italians and Greeks broke through on the Macedonian front. While Bulgarian forces stopped them in Dojran and they didn't succeed to occupy Bulgarian lands, Tsar Ferdinand was forced to sue for peace.<br />
<br />In order to head off the revolutionaries, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his son Boris III. The revolutionaries were suppressed and the army disbanded. Under the Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919), Bulgaria lost its Aegean coastline in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers (transferred later by them to Greece) and nearly all of its Macedonian territory to the new state of Yugoslavia, and had to give Dobruja back to the Romanians (see also Dobruja, Western Outlands, Western Thrace).<br />
<br />
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The railway from the strategically important port city of
Salonika (Thessaloniki) in northern Greece to Belgrade via Skopje (Uskub)
offered a direct route to embattled Serbia. In September 1915, with Bulgaria
mobilising for an attack on Serbia, Britain and France accepted an offer from
the pro-Entente Greek prime minister Eleutherios (Elephferios) Venizelos to
land troops at Salonika. The force at Salonika was initially composed of
Anglo-French units, many of which had come from Gallipoli. It was reinforced by
the Serbian army in exile on Corfu, Italians and a small Russian contingent. It
remained until the war’s end. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The force landed on 5 October 1915, the same day that the
pro-German Greek king, Constantine I – who was married to the Kaiser’s sister –
forced Venizelos to resign. On 6 October 1915, the Central Powers invaded
Serbia. Anglo-French units at Salonika pushed north up the Vardar (Axios) river
valley to help the Serbs. It was too little, too late. The Serbs retreated
through Albania to the Adriatic coast while the Salonika force retired back to
the city. Bulgarian and German forces (with some Turkish units) then gathered
along the Greek– Serbian and Greek–Bulgarian borders, while the Greek army,
supposedly neutral, handed Greece’s Fort Ruppel, which commanded the Struma
(Strimón) valley, to the Bulgarians (26 May 1916). In response to these
threats, the supreme commander at Salonika, the French general Maurice Sarrail,
transformed the city into a fortress surrounded by fieldwork defences. He took
full control of the city from the Greeks in mid-1916, establishing the city as
an alternative centre for pro-Entente Greek forces and politicians, a policy
that embroiled the garrison in internal Greek politics. </div>
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While France was keen on the Salonika operation, senior
British military advisers to the British government, such as William Robertson,
Chief of the Imperial General Staff, were never convinced of the usefulness of
peripheral operations such as Salonika, which took troops away from the main
western front. By early 1916 the number of British troops at Salonika exceeded
150,000. Robertson vigorously urged a withdrawal from Salonika but political
factors made this difficult. The defeat at Gallipoli had lowered Anglo-French
prestige in the Balkans and the Entente could ill-afford for Greece to join the
Central Powers. </div>
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Sarrail’s record of military achievement against the Central
Powers was not impressive. On 10 August 1916, Entente troops began preliminary
attacks at Lake Dorian (Dojran) before a general autumn 1916 offensive. German-
Bulgarian forces pre-empted this with attacks on the western and eastern
extremities of Sarrail’s line. In the west, the reconstituted Serbian army in
the Flórina sector retreated to Lake Ostrovo (Vegorrítis). Fighting then
continued along the Crno (Crna) river east of Flórina. In the eastern sector of
the front, the Bulgarians took the Greek town of Serres (Sérrai) in the Struma
valley on 25 August, threatening the port of Kavala (Kaválla) whose Greek
garrison surrendered without a fight on 14 September 1916. Under pressure,
Sarrail put a halt to the faltering offensive at Lake Dorian. </div>
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When Sarrail’s troops did finally attack towards Skopje in
September 1916, he hoped that this would relieve the hard-pressed Rumanians.
Sarrail’s forces took Monastir (Bitola) in the western sector of the front on
19 November 1916 but they advanced no further. As the British struggled up the
Struma valley, operations descended into western front-style trench deadlock.
Checked, allied troops sat out the winter doing little. By early 1917, Sarrail
had some 600,000 men at his disposal – a mixture of French, British, Serbians,
Italians and Russians that made command and control difficult. This force was
more nominal than real as the unhealthy, swampy climate of Salonika was a
breeding ground for diseases such as malaria, paratyphoid and dysentery, which
left much of Sarrail’s force in hospital and reduced his fighting strength to
about 100,000. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Sarrail attacked again in March 1917. A Franco-Serbian force
advanced on a line between Monastir and Lake Prespa, while the British
spearheaded an attack at Lake Dorian. Advances were minimal: a few hundred
metres were won at the cost of some 15,000 casualties. By the end of May, with
Russian units in mutiny, Sarrail called off the offensive, and the front became
static. Marie Guillaumat replaced the unpopular Sarrail in December 1917. In
July 1918, another French commander, Louis Franchet d’Esperey, replaced
Guillaumat. In June 1917, with Venizelos back in power, Greece entered the war
(29 June 1917), adding 250,000 men to the Salonika force. On 15 September 1918,
at the war’s end, the Salonika force launched the Vardar offensive against
weary and ill-equipped Bulgarian opposition. The Bulgarians broke, and by 25
September their retreat had become a rout. The Salonika force advanced deep
into enemy territory, reaching the Danube by the armistice. Serbian forces
re-occupied Belgrade on 1 November 1918, by which time Bulgaria had surrendered
(30 September). </div>
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<br /></div>
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This final victory should not overshadow the fact that the
Salonika expedition did very little, except tie up large numbers of Entente
troops that could have been used more fruitfully elsewhere. Although battle
casualties were low – a reflection of the general inactivity of the front for
most of the war – casualties from disease, notably malaria, invalided some
400,000 men. The Germans were right to dub the front ‘the greatest internment
camp in the world’.</div>
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<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-51273268753622075502015-08-10T05:46:00.001-07:002015-08-10T05:46:17.567-07:00Czechs on the decks of their Majesty’s navy – exhibit sheds light on Czech sailors’ life at sea<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQnKuaYDMZbZSjlq8k3eKJeMqupGEXy8yXjLgqa-uLaClGbiDMwYWJLWuz2Wg9qkUHvscOi8lp84K4x_RLPun6CVl0E5HPBqhc53ShEC9RnIPA-U-f6LMvw33LGbT9PbSdrui31LxnCc-J/s1600/boca_kotorska_vzpourax.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="135" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQnKuaYDMZbZSjlq8k3eKJeMqupGEXy8yXjLgqa-uLaClGbiDMwYWJLWuz2Wg9qkUHvscOi8lp84K4x_RLPun6CVl0E5HPBqhc53ShEC9RnIPA-U-f6LMvw33LGbT9PbSdrui31LxnCc-J/s200/boca_kotorska_vzpourax.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country, and as such, life at sea is not the first thing that comes to mind. But before and during World War I, many sailors from Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia served for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, the Imperial and Royal War Navy. An exhibition currently on in the Roudnice nad Labem town museum explores this relatively obscure chapter of Czech history.<br /><br />It all started with a postcard, sent by sailor Jaroslav Marcin to his native town of Roudnice nad Labem from Croatia. Jan Mrázek, the director of the Roudnice nad Labem museum and the curator of the exhibit “Czechs on the decks of their Majesty’s navy” explains what inspired this show, which runs through September.<br />
<br />“In 2008, we had an exhibit devoted to the role of Czechs in World War I, and one of the pieces on display was a color postcard, which sailor Jaroslav Marcin sent to Roudnice from the Croatian harbor of Malinska. That sparked the idea to organize an entire show devoted to the life of Czech sailors at sea, especially those who served in the Adriatic Sea in World War I. This chapter of history is relatively little known, even today. So the postcard and the fact that there were quite a few Czech sailors at the time inspired us to organize this exhibition.”<br />
<br />At one point, up to ten percent of the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal War Navy was made up of Czech sailors. Czech participation in the navy is also the subject of academic research. Historian Jindřich Marek of the Military History Institute Prague explains how Czechs became sailors.<br />
<br />“They started serving in the Adriatic Sea around 1905, when the Austro-Hungarian navy was being modernized. Back then, qualified sailors were in demand, and Czechs, along with Germans, were among the most skilled within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. And briefly before World War I erupted, the number of Czechs in the navy reached its peak; some ten percent of its sailors were Czech.”<br />
<br />When the First World War erupted in 1914, the Austro-Hungarian navy expanded its fleet to include U-boats. One of the empire’s U-boats torpedoed the flagship of the French Mediterranean fleet, the Jean Bart, at the start of the war, in 1914, causing serious damage to it. Soon, the underwater boats of the Austro-Hungarian navy were feared by their enemies. But of course these very complicated pieces of machinery had to be operated by highly skilled sailors. Jindřich Marek again.<br /><br />
<br />“The Austro-Hungarian fleet was mostly made up of modern German boats, and about a third of the men who served on them were Czech. That is because those sailors had to be very skilled and well-trained, engineers for example, or radio operators. But sadly, the U-boat war was a cruel one and there were many more fatalities below water than on the surface. A lot of Czech sailors were killed at sea. Serving on those U-boats was physically and psychologically difficult, and very taxing on their health. The air was bad and there was a lack of provisions. So those sailors had to be strong and determined men.”<br />
<br />Czechs also worked as engineers and musicians in the navy band – but also Czech doctors were eager to join the navy, says Jindřich Marek.<br />
<br />“Of course, we have to keep in mind that Czech doctors were also represented in the Austro-Hungarian navy. For example the doctors’ choir of the navy was mostly made up of Czechs. I think it was because we have this hang-up, we are tormented by the fact that the sea isn’t nearby. Everyone loves the far sea, there is a certain romance attached to it. And especially those young Czechs who had studied medicine and came from rather poor families were looking for options for their future at sea, and they hoped that the doctors’ choir of the navy would fulfill their wish to get away. Among them were some important personalities, such as Dr. Robert Lím, who was the commander of the doctors’ choir in 1918.”<br />
<br />Even though they came from a landlocked country, Czech sailors did not find it difficult to get used to serving in the Austro-Hungarian navy, says Jindřich Marek. Not even the fact that German was the official language presented a problem for them.<br />
<br />“They were able to pick up the special skills they needed very quickly, and even swimming was not a big problem for them. There is a nice story about this actually: A lot of Croatians who grew up by the sea were not able to swim when they were adults and had to learn it during their military service, while the Czech men learned swimming in our various fish ponds and lakes and had no problem with that. Even German, which was the official language of the navy, did not cause them difficulties. And for some nations that were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the language would have presented an obstacle.”<br />
<br />However, the war took its toll on the thousands of men who served in the Imperial and Royal War Navy. By 1918, fatigue with the war and desperation were quickly growing within its ranks. Following the February Revolution in Russia in 1917, strikes and insurgencies were on the rise. On February 1st, 1918, sailors serving on some 40 war ships in the Bay of Kotor hissed the red flag in what later became known as the Bay of Kotor mutiny. One of its central figures was a sailor from Moravia, Franz Rasch. He was not the only Czech involved in it, however.<br /><br />
<br />“Another Czech participant in the mutiny was Rudolf Kreibich, a Prague resident who had been a musician on the SMS Sankt Georg. He was a hot-blooded leader and tried to organize the sailors. Some of the temperamental Italians and Croatians destroyed and looted during the first part of the mutiny, whereas the Bohemian sailors were aiming for a more organized and rational approach.”<br />While the mutiny was interpreted as a rebellion of the oppressed Slavic nations against their German leaders at first, it turned out to be an effort to finally arrive at peace or at least be given better provisions. Among those who participated in the mutiny also was Jaroslav Marcin, the mariner from Roudnice. Curator Jan Mrázek explains his involvement.<br />
<br />“Jaroslav Marcin recorded his experiences meticulously. He kept a diary during his time at sea and the entries in it, to this day, are valuable sources of information. He served on up to ten different ships during the war. He took part in several special courses of training, for example in artillery and on using mines. Towards the end of the war, he ended up in the Bay of Kotor. There, he participated in the mutiny, which was less a result of the revolution in Russia, than a reaction to the lack of provisions for navy members during the end of the war, and that was a situation across the entire monarchy.”<br />
<br />The mutiny ended within three days. Franz Rasch and other mariners involved in it were sentenced to death by a military court. While the legions were still fighting in France, Italy and Russia up until the downfall on October 28, 1918, some 80 to 120 mariners had returned home, deserted the navy or been sent back after participating in the mutiny. They then formed the basis for the first active army of the newly established state of Czechoslovakia, which was founded in October 1918 . Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-55198249503905941612015-08-10T05:41:00.002-07:002015-08-10T05:41:45.251-07:00Czech Soldiers in World War I <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<i><b>The Czechoslovak legions occupy an almost legendary place in Czech history. They comprise the armed forces that fought during and after World War I on the allied side in pursuit of an independent Czechoslovakia. The biggest force, and most potent myths, centre on the Russian force, which became embroiled in the civil war, spending three years and travelling thousands of miles before returning home. We look at the myths and facts about their exploits.</b></i><br />
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At the outbreak of World War I, the Czechs and Slovaks
showed little enthusiasm for fighting for their respective enemies, the Germans
and the Hungarians, against fellow Slavs, the Russians and the Serbs. Large
numbers of Czechs and Slovaks defected on the Russian front and formed the
Czechoslovak Legion. Masaryk went to western Europe and began propagating the
idea that the Austro-Hungarian Empire should be dismembered and that
Czechoslovakia should be an independent state. In 1916, together with Edvard Beneš
and Milan Rastislav Štefánik (a Slovak astronomer and war hero), Masaryk
created the Czechoslovak National Council. Masaryk in the United States,
Štefánik in France, and Beneš in France and Britain then worked to gain Allied
recognition. When secret talks between the Allies and Austrian emperor Charles
I collapsed, the Allies recognized the Czechoslovak National Council in the
summer of 1918 as the supreme organ of a future Czechoslovak government.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In early October 1918, Germany and Austria proposed peace
negotiations. On October 18, while in the United States, Masaryk issued a
declaration of Czechoslovak independence. Masaryk insisted that the new
Czechoslovak state include the historic Bohemian Kingdom, containing the
German-populated Sudetenland. On October 21, however, German deputies from the
Sudetenland joined other German and Austrian deputies in the Austrian
parliament in declaring an independent German-Austrian state. Following the
abdication of Charles I on November 11, Czech troops occupied the Sudetenland.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Hungary withdrew from the Habsburg Empire on November 1. The
new liberal-democratic government of Hungary under Count Mihály Károlyi
attempted to retain Slovakia. With Allied approval, the Czechs occupied
Slovakia, and the Hungarians were forced to withdraw. The Czechs and Allies
agreed on the Danube and Ipeľ rivers as the boundary between Hungary and
Slovakia; a large Hungarian minority, occupying the fertile plain of the
Danube, would be included in the new state.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Small armed units were organized from 1914 onwards by
volunteer Czechs and Slovaks. Their purpose was to help the Entente and win
their support to the creation of an independent country of Czechoslovakia, then
part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Later, many Czech and Slovaks captured
during the war joined these units; with help of émigré intellectuals and
politicians (Tomáš Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and others) the Legions
grew into a force of tens of thousands. The independence of Czechoslovakia was
finally obtained in 1918.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Czechoslovak Legions</b></div>
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Czechoslovak Legions in Russia were created in 1917, in
France in December 1917 (including volunteers from America), and in Italy in
April 1918. Their membership consisted of Czech and Slovak prisoners of war in
Russia, Serbia and Italy, and Czech and Slovak emigrants in France and Russia
who had already created the "Czech company" in Russia and a unit
named "Nazdar" in France in 1914.</div>
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The Legions were actively involved in many battles of World
War I, including Vouziers, Arras, Zborov, Doss Alto, Bakhmach, and others. The
fact that the Czechoslovaks fielded military units on three fronts was critical
in convincing the Allies to recognize of the right of the Czechs and Slovaks to
an independent nation.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The term "Legions" was not widely used during the
war but was adopted shortly afterwards.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Battle Honours for Czechs fighting in France : <b>Alsace,
Argonne, Peronne and L.E.</b> (Légion EtrangËre - the Foreign Legion), for
actions in Russia : <b>Zhorov, Bachmac, Sibir </b>(Siberia) and<b> C.D.</b>
(Czech Brigade) and for actions in Italy : <b>Doss'Alto </b>and <b>Piave.</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Siberian Legion </b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Perhaps the best known of this period comes from the
Czechoslovak Legions in Siberia and its forerunners. The first Czech unit in
Russia was the Cheshskaya Druzhina, a unit of the Imperial Army largely staffed
by Czechs and Slovaks living in Russia. As the war progressed large numbers of
Czechs serving in the Austro-Hungarian army units surrendered, often entire
units crossing the line en mass. Originally recruitment of prisoners for
Czechoslovak military units were allowed only among new POWs in one sector of
the Russian front, but eventually it was also permitted in the prisoner of war
camps. After the success of Czechoslovak units during the Kerensky offensive,
Russian authorities permitted unlimited recruitment of Czech and Slovak POWs
which led to the expansion of the Legion until it consisted of 70,000 troops.
Most of the units were located in the cities along the Trans-Siberian Railroad
and its spur lines where Czechoslovak units were headquartered.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Legion in France</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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The center for Czechoslovak opposition to the Central Powers
was embodied in the Czechoslovak National Council in Paris. Following the
recognition of the Council as a co-belligerent, three Czechoslovak regiments,
the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd, were formed on the Western Front. Prior to the
creation of these independent units, a smaller unit comprised of Czechs and
Slovaks served in the "Nazdar" company of the French Foreign Legion.
The Czechoslovak regiments in France were stationed in one sector of the front.
The French units were among the first to return to Czechoslovakia following
independence, mainly in Slovakia where many of these units were sent to help
defend the boarders of the new state.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Legion in Italy</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Like the Czechoslovak military units formed in Siberia,
those in Italy were formed predominately from Czech and Slovak prisoners of
war. However, the Italian government was slow in allowing Czech and Slovak
prisoners of war into combat units. Most of the former prisoners spent time in
construction or guide units supporting Italian units before combat units were
permitted. </div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-18538240727151474852015-07-16T02:48:00.003-07:002015-07-16T02:48:47.185-07:00Polish nationalists <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Soldiers from Kolegium "A" of Kedyw on
Stawki Street in Wola district - Warsaw Uprising 1944</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Most Poles acknowledged the legitimacy of
their government-in-exile. Except for its extreme right component, the Polish
resistance never collaborated with the Germans. It regarded the Nazis as the
mortal enemy of the Polish nation. Its position toward the Soviets evolved
depending on the situation at the fronts, the policies of the major members of
the Grand Alliance, and particular incidents such as the tensions over
Wladyslaw Anders’ Army, the revelation of the Katyn massacre, the creation of
the Polish Committee of National Liberation, and contacts between the pro-Communist
forces and the nationalist guerrillas. Poland and Russia restored relations
after Germany attacked the USSR, and they concluded a military alliance on 30
July 1941 that presumed an amnesty of all Polish citizens kept in Soviet jails,
labor camps, and exile. However, the two governments broke relations again
after the discoveries in the Katyn Forest in April 1943. The major cause of
tensions between the Soviet Union and the government-in-exile was not even the
fate of the Poles murdered by the NKVD but the status of the disputed
territories. The two sides never abrogated the alliance, whose conditions
stated: “The government of the USSR regards as invalid [the provisions of] the
Soviet-German treaties of 1939 on the territorial changes in Poland.”
Accordingly, the government-in-exile demanded the return of the disputed
territories, being unaware of the agreement reached by the Allies at the Tehran
Conference that ceded them to the Soviet Union. Most members of the
government-in-exile were ready to cooperate with the Soviets on certain
conditions. The Poles in London believed that a mass anti-Nazi uprising in
Poland would secure such international prestige that the Western Allies would
force the Soviets to drop their demands. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The largest component of the Polish
resistance, AK, viewed itself as a supraparty armed force loyal to the
government-in-exile and aimed to unite and control the Polish resistance. It
started as a network of urban anti-Nazi cells consisting mainly of former army
officers, but it gradually turned into a cross-class underground organization
with support from all social groups. Before its mobilization in June 1944, AK
had only 6,000 armed guerrillas. The rest of its 370,000 members conducted
sabotage actions in cities and collected weapons and intelligence. After the
mobilization, the number of AK guerrillas rose to 60,000. AK’s ally, Bataliony
Chlopskie (Peasant Battalions), a military wing of the moderate Peasant Party,
had 30,000 guerrillas by 1944, most of which eventually merged with AK. The
Communists and the extreme right wing of the National Party opposed the
government-in-exile but conditionally cooperated with it. They organized their
own resistance groups, which were less popular than AK. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">AK developed its military strategy by 1944.
At its heart was Operation Tempest: Polish guerrillas were to rise in disputed
areas against German rearguards demoralized by the approach of the Red Army and
seize power in major cities just before of the arrival of the Soviets. The
timing of the insurrection was crucial. Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski, the AK
commander-in-chief, maintained that the uprisings should occur ideally about 12
hours before the Red Army entered major cities so that the insurgents would
have time to take power during the chaotic retreat of the Germans. If AK rises
too early, he argued, the Germans would crush the insurrection – poorly armed
guerrillas could not resist Germans for more than several days. A wave of urban
insurrections would roll in front of the Soviet advance from east to west
across Poland, producing Polish administrations loyal to the
government-in-exile and setting the Soviets in front of fait accompli. These
uprisings were directed militarily against the Germans but politically against
the Soviets. AK was to maintain neutrality with the Soviets but oppose their
attempts to incorporate Poles into the Red Army or into the 1st Polish Army
raised by the Soviets from Poles. This was an extremely risky strategy. The
success crucially depended on two factors: AK’s ability to overwhelm the
retreating Germans and the prompt arrival of the Red Army after the beginning
of the uprisings. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Bor-Komorowski observed bitterly in
November 1943 that merely six months after the Katyn scandal “among the masses
a tendency to regard the Soviets as [their] rescuers from the German terror has
begun to emerge.” 197 He had to prohibit any actions against Red partisans and
the Red Army. 198 The Soviet General Staff, in turn, instructed the Red
partisans to maintain benevolent neutrality toward AK and, as in case of other
nationalist resistance groups, urge the Polish underground to postpone the
discussion of political problems until the victory over Germany. The Soviets
planned to use Polish guerrilla manpower against Germans without promising AK
any political concessions. This attempt was futile. The political goals of the
Soviets and the AK, and their means to attain them, were incompatible. The
Soviets sought to defeat Germany, regardless of the price, as quickly as
possible by all means. AK planned to achieve its goals with a minimum of
civilian casualties and rejected the permanent guerrilla warfare practiced by
the Soviets, preferring dramatic but short actions aimed primarily at securing
international prestige and gaining leverage against the Soviet Union. AK called
on Poles to abstain from armed struggle against Germany until a spectacular
uprising would bring the most political benefits. Relations between AK and the
pro- Communist guerrillas turned on local circumstances and the personalities
of field commanders. They more often collaborated than clashed. Their
cooperation was particularly fruitful in actions against UPA.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-62896622807645866322015-07-16T02:45:00.002-07:002015-07-16T02:45:42.702-07:00Balts and Ukrainians in the Soviet Army <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMcy1gyF8EIZhfVhPo99eDwv71K268y44ofcWCAY0aJ-JZXYY7ScgH9SsrBiiobP4pkq5vWdPDf5ScMmnPBDyx3ZLi6X9AzI0FvR2UILCeOKwdgGk7QVv4CYuPkvmgbEURr8D5BkPTs0KO/s1600/39846-700x1056.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMcy1gyF8EIZhfVhPo99eDwv71K268y44ofcWCAY0aJ-JZXYY7ScgH9SsrBiiobP4pkq5vWdPDf5ScMmnPBDyx3ZLi6X9AzI0FvR2UILCeOKwdgGk7QVv4CYuPkvmgbEURr8D5BkPTs0KO/s400/39846-700x1056.jpg" width="265" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The widespread collaboration with the Nazis
in the Baltic did not necessarily mean that the Balts contributed more to the
German war effort than to the Soviet one. In 1941–1942, the Soviets raised an
Estonian and a Latvian rifle corps and a Lithuanian division from loyalists who
had evacuated with the Red Army, those Balts who permanently lived in the
Soviet Union and workers of the Baltic labor battalions. While Baltic police
battalions raised by Germans with the help of self-administrations engaged
mainly in counterinsurgency, the Soviet Baltic divisions were frontline
formations from the start. Defections of Baltic soldiers from the Red Army were
common in 1941–1942 but stopped later. Most senior officers in these formations
were from the disbanded national territorial rifle corps. The 201st Latvian
Rifle Division, with volunteers making up 70 percent of its strength, went first
in battle in December 1941 and earned a “Guards” title for its outstanding
performance in the summer of 1942; the 308th Latvian Rifle Division was awarded
a Red Banner Order for the fights in Riga in the fall of 1944. The 16th Soviet
Lithuanian Rifle Division was praised for its actions in the battle of Kursk.
By March 1945, 99,974 Lithuanians were drafted into the Red Army – almost three
times as many as those who served in the German-sponsored police battalions.
The 8th Estonian Rifle Corps , with 88.5 percent of Estonians among its
personnel, engaged Germans first in December 1942 at Velikie Luki, where it
lost half its soldiers owing to battle attrition and defections, but then it
fought well against the Germans and Baltic Waffen-SS divisions in 1944 and took
Tallinn in September of that year, for which its 249th Rifle Division received
a Red Banner Order. About 25,000 Estonians, 5,000 Latvians, and 20,000
Lithuanians died in the ranks of the Red Army and labor battalions. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Many more Ukrainians fought for the Soviets
than against them. In 1941– 1945, 3,184,726 Ukrainians enlisted in the Red
Army, including 750,000 from the western regions. Twice as many West Ukrainians
served in the Red Army as contributed to anti-Soviet resistance in 1944–1950.
In addition, tens of thousands of Ukrainians fought as partisans. The number of
Belorussians who collaborated with the Germans was negligible compared with
those who fought for the Soviets. </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-86496907765019839252015-07-16T02:40:00.003-07:002015-07-16T02:40:51.093-07:00Fighting and Supporting the Nazis in the East.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">All major nationalist groups, except Armija
Krajowa (AK), hoped the Germans would allow them to organize their national
armies, which would fight the Soviet Union as Axis members. Thousands
volunteered to join the police battalions – the first collaborator military
units organized by the Germans. However, the German administration did not
allow collaborators to pursue any other agenda but its own and often sent these
units to fight outside their native regions, where their soldiers could not
even entertain the thought that they defended the interests of their nations.
The Germans disbanded Nachtigall and Roland battalions in August 1941 and
afterward moved their personnel, containing many OUN members, to Belorussia,
where they fought partisans. These soldiers faithfully served Germany for 17
months after the arrest of the top OUN-B leaders until Germans disbanded them.
In 1943, the Germans raised the Ukrainian Waffen-SS Galizien Division with the
help of OUN-M. It was crushed three weeks after its arrival at the front in
June 1944, and then its remnants suppressed insurgencies in Slovakia and
Slovenia. 66 Himmler officially forbade reference to Galizien as Ukrainian, and
only on 19 April 1945 did that word become a part of its title.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Most Balts preferred the Germans to the
Soviets as an occupying force, and many wholeheartedly collaborated. The Baltic
police battalions consisted mainly of nationalist volunteers. Latvia and
Estonia gave Germany many more collaborators per capita than other borderland
regions. Latvian units fought around Lake Il’men’ in Russia, in Ukraine, and in
Crimea; Estonians did the same in Belorussia, Ukraine, and Stalingrad; and
Lithuanians did so in Belorussia and Ukraine. 68 The Latvian administration
raised 48 police battalions, some of which were later reorganized into two
Waffen-SS divisions. By 1 July 1944, 85,550 Latvians were enlisted in the SS,
with another 61,060 as auxiliaries in the German forces, which constituted 8
percent of Latvian population, a top proportion among the countries that
supplied German collaborators. 69 Three times as many Latvian citizens fought
for the Germans as for the Soviets; only 57,470 Latvians joined the Red Army. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Estonia, the self-administration organized
a Waffen-SS legion in October 1942, transformed into a Waffen-SS division in
May 1944. Along with police battalions that operated since the beginning of the
German occupation, the Estonian collaborators numbered between 50,000 to 60,000
men at that time, five times larger than the regular army of independent
Estonia. After the influx of volunteers dried up, the Germans resorted to
conscription, and the self-administrations obediently drafted Balts,
threatening those who failed to report with “punishment according to martial
law.” Yet many Latvian and Estonian soldiers fought for the Axis with
enthusiasm. Indeed, the Latvian 19th Waffen-SS Division stubbornly defended
Courland until Germany surrendered; whereas a unit from the Latvian 15th
Waffen-SS Division guarded Hitler’s bunker in Berlin during his last days. About
50,000 Latvians died while fighting on German side, 10 times as many as the
number of those who died fighting for the Soviets. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lithuanian nationalists, by contrast, called
on recruits to evade German conscriptions. No unit larger than a police
battalion was ever organized. By January 1945, 36,800 Lithuanians organized in
21 police battalions fought for the Germans. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The largest Baltic state thus gave the Germans
the smallest number of collaborators.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Apart from the Holocaust, Baltic police
battalions performed mainly counterinsurgency missions. They conducted these
operations in the style set by the Nazis. Of 48 Latvian police battalions, 26
engaged in counterinsurgency in Belorussia and “have remained in the historic
memory of the Belorussian people … as members of punitive expeditions … conspicuous
by their ruthlessness.” In an operation called “Winter Magic,” they burned down
between 15 and 26 Belorussian villages and executed scores of civilians, some
of them burned alive in locked buildings. 88 Latvian police units also killed
all 235 inhabitants of the Latvian village of Audrini and 47 persons in the
village of Morduki in retaliation for sheltering partisans. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Friedrich Schwung , Gebietskommissar in
Latgale , commented: “Latvian policemen almost all have a bit of sadism in
their blood.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Estonian
self-administration raised over 20 police battalions. Of them, 7 were guarding
Estonian concentration camps; 12 engaged in antipartisan operations in Russia,
Belorussia, and Poland; and 3 conducted deportations to Germany and Estonia and
food requisitions. During a counterinsurgency campaign in the Russian Pskov
Province, the 37th and 40th Estonian Police Battalions were parts of the 207th
German Security Division. Its reports state that it executed 93 percent of the
arrested partisan suspects and suspected partisan sympathizers among civilians
in 1942 and 81 percent in 1943 – in total, 541 persons. The 288th Estonian
Police Battalion burned down 30 Belorussian villages. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Unlike many Balts and West Ukrainians, West
Belorussians mostly abstained from collaboration. Rosenberg observed that “no
positive elements with whom we could cooperate exist in Belorussia.”
Ordnungsdienst, the German auxiliary police, resorted to a compulsory draft of
Belorussians, enforced by taking hostages from the families of eligible men.
The police units so organized were fused into the least enthusiastic of all Waffen-SS
divisions.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-47147795071829964052015-06-30T04:48:00.001-07:002015-06-30T04:48:48.558-07:00Finland’s Air Force <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4RA5C5k8pCJTFq3cEZrJD23_0KVswCWk78sGISc39oiRfIlhddOF-jA-Lgibl-cwkNHIVnB2PMxivucmVtfB_u1591l_va5MiS-kqZzuRhVI_S6PZI4UPjdgL2egaszr3Sc24WrMWn7E9/s1600/gfnnghfngh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="391" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4RA5C5k8pCJTFq3cEZrJD23_0KVswCWk78sGISc39oiRfIlhddOF-jA-Lgibl-cwkNHIVnB2PMxivucmVtfB_u1591l_va5MiS-kqZzuRhVI_S6PZI4UPjdgL2egaszr3Sc24WrMWn7E9/s400/gfnnghfngh.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In the 1930s, two controversies hindered
Finnish aircraft acquisition. The first was the issue of whether fighters or
bombers should have priority (the need for fighters seeming paramount). The
second was the country from which to purchase aircraft. The head of the Defense
Council, Carl Mannerheim, favored Germany, and the air force commander, Colonel
Jarl Lundquist (later a lieutenant general), favored Britain. Mannerheim
stressed the danger of air attacks on Finnish cities when arguing for more
funds for the air force, but he gave priority to air support for ground forces
when war came. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In September 1939, the Finnish Air Force
(FAF) had only 36 modern interceptors (Dutch Fokker D-XXIs) and 21 bombers (14
Bristol Blenheims and 7 Junkers K430s). Lundquist deployed his limited fighter
assets forward to protect the army and defend as much Finnish air space as
possible. Following the Soviet invasion of Finland in November 1939, Finnish
bombers attacked airfields and supported ground forces. In late December 1939,
the FAF was able to purchase additional Fokker fighters, but its best aircraft
came in the form of Morane-Saulnier MS-406s purchased from France. The Finns
purchased additional Blenheims, U.S. Brewster F2A Buffalos (the Finns enjoyed
considerable success with this much-maligned aircraft), Italian Fiat G-50s, and
additional MS 406s. Most arrived too late for the war. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">During this Finnish-Soviet War of
1939–1940, also called the Winter War, the FAF supposedly accounted for
approximately 200 Soviet aircraft, and more than 300 others were destroyed by
antiaircraft fire or on the ground. Finnish losses during the war amounted to
53 aircraft. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Finnish
Air Force in the Winter War</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">At the beginning of the war, Finland had a
very small air force, with only 114 combat airplanes fit for duty. Therefore,
Finnish air missions were very limited and fighter aircraft were mainly used to
repel Soviet bombers. Old-fashioned and few in numbers, Finnish aircraft could
not offer support to the Finnish ground troops. In spite of aircraft losses
throughout the war, the Finnish Air Force grew by 50 percent by the end of the
war. Most new aircraft shipments arrived during January 1940.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Finnish fighter pilots often dove into
Soviet formations that outnumbered them ten or even twenty times. Finnish
fighters shot down 240 confirmed Soviet aircraft, against the Finnish loss of
53. A Finnish forward air base often consisted of only a frozen lake, a
windsock, a telephone set and some tents. Air-raid warnings were given by
Finnish women organized by the Lotta Svärd. Finnish antiaircraft gunners shot
down between 314 to 444 Soviet aircraft.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Finnish
aircraft</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">At the start of hostilities, the Finnish
Air Force had 146 aircraft of all types at its disposal. The primary fighter
aircraft were 15 Bristol Bulldog IVs, which had entered service in 1935, and 41
of the more modern Fokker D.XXI. There were also 18 license-built Bristol
Blenheim bombers. In 1939, an order had been placed in Italy for 25 Fiat G.50
fighters; two were being assembled in Sweden when the war broke out.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">During the war, a number of aircraft were
ordered from abroad:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>30 Gloster Gladiator II biplane fighters from the United Kingdom</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>12 Bristol Blenheim IV bombers from the United Kingdom</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>30 Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters from France</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>44 Brewster 239 fighters from the United States</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>22 Gloster Gauntlet trainers from the United Kingdom</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>10 Fiat G.50 fighters from Italy</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In air combat, Finland used the
"finger four" formation (four planes split into two pairs, one flying
low and the other high, with each plane fighting independently of the others,
yet supporting its wingman in combat), which was superior to the Soviet tactic
of three fighters flying in a delta formation. This formation and the credo of
Finnish pilots to always attack, no matter the odds, contributed to the failure
of Soviet bombers to inflict substantial damage against Finnish positions and
population centres.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">#</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In 1941, when Finland again went to war
with the Soviet Union (the Finnish-Soviet War of 1941–1944, also called the
Continuation War), Finland’s air force had increased substantially. It
possessed 144 modern fighters (a mixture of U.S., British, French, Dutch, and
Italian planes); 44 British and ex-Soviet bombers; and 63 mostly British and
German reconnaissance planes. Once the Continuation War began, Finnish access
to aircraft from other nations except Germany was cut off. The Finns did have
their own aircraft industry, which produced limited numbers of aircraft
including the VL Myrsky II fighter. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Continuation
War 1941–44</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Finnish Air Force was better prepared
for the Continuation War. It had been considerably strengthened and consisted
of some 550 aircraft, though many were considered second-rate and thus
"exportable" by their countries of origin. Finland purchased a large
number of aircraft during the Winter War, but few of those reached service
during the short conflict. Politics also played a factor, since Hitler did not
wish to antagonize the Soviet Union by allowing aircraft exports through
German-controlled territory during the conflict. New aircraft types were in
place by the time hostilities with Soviet Union resumed in 1941. Small numbers
of Hawker Hurricanes arrived from the United Kingdom, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s
from France, Fiat G.50s from Italy, a few dozen Curtiss Hawk 75s captured by
the Germans in France and Norway then sold to Finland, when Germany began
warming up its ties with Finland, and numerous Brewster B239s from the neutral
USA strengthened the FiAF. The FiAF proved capable of holding its own in the
upcoming battles with the Red Air Force. Older models, like the Fokker D.XXI
and Gloster Gladiator, were replaced in front-line combat units with the new
aircraft.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The FiAF's main mission was to achieve air
superiority over Finland and prevent Soviet air power from reinforcing their
front lines. The fighter squadrons were very successful in the Finnish
offensive of 1941. A stripped-down, more maneuverable, and significantly
lightened version of the American Brewster B239 "Buffalo" was the FiAF's
main fighter until 1943. Results with this fighter were very good, even though
the type was considered to be a failure in the US Navy and with British Far
East forces. In the Finnish use, the Brewster had a victory rate of 32:1 – 459
kills to 15 losses. German Bf 109s replaced the Brewster as the primary
front-line fighter of the FiAF in 1943, though the Buffalos continued in
secondary roles until the end of the wars. Other types, especially the Italian
Fiat G.50 and Curtiss Hawk 75 also proved capable in the hands of well-trained
Finnish pilots. Various Russian designs also saw action when lightly damaged
"kills" were repaired and made airworthy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Dornier Do 17s (received as a gift from
Hermann Göring in 1942) and Junkers Ju 88s improved the bombing capability of
the Finnish Air Force. The bomber force was also strengthened with a number of
captured Soviet bombers, which had been taken in large numbers by the Germans
during Operation Barbarossa. The bomber units flew assorted missions with
varying results, but a large part of their time was spent in training, waiting
to use their aircraft until the time required it. Thus the bomber squadrons of
Flying Regiment 4 were ready for the summer battles of 1944, which included for
example the Battle of Tali-Ihantala.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">While the FiAF was successful in its
mission, the conditions were not easy. Spare parts for the FiAF planes were
scarce — parts from the US (Buffalo & Hawk), Britain (Hurricanes), and
Italy (G.50) were unavailable for much of the war. Repairs took often a long
time, and the State Aircraft Factory was burdened with restoration/repair of
Soviet war booty planes, foreign aircraft with many hours of flight time, and
the development of indigenous Finnish fighter types. Also, one damaged bomber
took up workshop space equalling three fighters.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Finland was required to expel or intern
remaining German forces as part of its peace agreement with the Soviets in
mid-1944. As a result, the final air battles were against retreating Luftwaffe
units.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Finnish Air Force did not bomb any
civilian targets during either war. Curiously, overflying Soviet towns and
bases was also forbidden, as to avoid any unneeded provocations and to spare
equipment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">According to Kalevi Keskinen's and Kari
Stenman's book "Aerial Victories 1–2", the Finnish Air Force shot
down 1,621 Soviet aircraft while losing 210 own aircraft during the
Continuation War 1941–44.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Finnish Air Force strategy stressed
aggressiveness; isolated fighters usually attacked no matter the number of
Soviet aircraft. The FAF employed a blue swastika marking (no relation to the
Nazi version) for national identification. The Luftwaffe and FAF cooperated in
this conflict, although neither could prevent Soviet air raids into Finnish
territory nor completely screen the Finnish army from air attacks.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">References
</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">Kirby, D. G. Finland in the Twentieth Century.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. Tillotson, H. M. Finland at
Peace and War, 1918–1993. Wilby, UK: Michael Russell, 1993. Trotter, William R.
A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish War of 1939–40. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin
Books, 1991.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-77417516451462283982015-06-30T04:42:00.000-07:002015-10-02T09:08:11.707-07:00Norway’s Air Power 1940<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Build-up for WWII</b></div>
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Before 1944 the Air Force were divided into the Norwegian
Army Air Service (Hærens Flyvevaaben) and the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service
(Marinens Flyvevaaben). In the late 30s, as war seemed imminent, more modern
aircraft was bought from abroad, including twelve Gloster Gladiator fighters
from the UK, and six Heinkel He 115s from Germany. Considerable orders for
aircraft were placed with U.S. companies during the months prior to the
invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940. Royal Norwegian Army Air Service operated
four Ca.310s.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The most important of the US orders were two orders for
comparatively modern Curtiss P-36 Hawk monoplane fighters. The first was for 24
Hawk 75A-6 (with 1200 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC3-G Twin Wasp engines),
19 of which were delivered before the invasion. Of these 19, though, none were
operational when the attack came. A number were still in their shipping crates
in Oslo harbour, while others stood at the Kjeller aircraft factory, flight
ready, but none combat ready. Some of the Kjeller aircraft had not been fitted
with machine guns, and those that had been fitted still lacked gun sights.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The five 75A-6s that were still in the US were sent to the
Little Norway training base of the exiled Royal Norwegian Air Force near
Toronto. All 19 Norwegian P-36s that were captured by the German invaders were
later sold by the German authorities to the Finnish Air Force, which was to use
them to good effect during the Continuation War.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The other order for P-36s was for 36 Hawk 75A-8 (with 1200
hp Wright R-1820-95 Cyclone 9 engines), none of which were delivered in time
for the invasion. The 30 completed machines were, like the 75A-6s, diverted to
Little Norway. There they were used for training Norwegian pilots until the
USAAF took over the aircraft and used them under the designation P36G</div>
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<br /></div>
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Also ordered prior to the invasion were 24 Northrop N-3PB
float planes built in on Norwegian specifications for a patrol bomber. The
order was made on 12 March 1940 in an effort to replace the Royal Norwegian
Navy Air Service's obsolete MF.11 biplane patrol aircraft. None of the type
were delivered by 9 April and when they became operational with the 330
(Norwegian) Squadron in May 1941 they were stationed at Reykjavík, Iceland
performing anti-submarine and convoy escort duties.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Escape and exile</b></div>
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The unequal situation led to the rapid defeat of the
Norwegian air forces, even though seven Gladiators from Jagevingen (the fighter
wing) defended Fornebu airport against the attacking German forces with some
success - claiming two Me 110 heavy fighters, two He 111 bombers and one
Junkers Ju 52 transport. Jagevingen lost two Gladiators to ground strafing
while they were rearming on Fornebu and one in the air, shot down by Future
Experte Helmut Lent, injuring the sergeant pilot. After the withdrawal of
allied forces, the Norwegian Government gave up fighting in Norway and
evacuated to the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Only aircraft of the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service had
the range to fly all the way from their last remaining bases in Northern Norway
to the UK. Included amongst the Norwegian aircraft that reached the British
Isles were four German made Heinkel He 115 seaplane bombers, six of which were
bought before the war and two more were captured from the Germans during the
Norwegian Campaign. One He 115 also escaped to Finland before the surrender of
mainland Norway, as did three M.F. 11s; landing on Lake Salmijärvi in Petsamo.
A captured Arado Ar 196 originating from the German heavy cruiser Admiral
Hipper was also flown to Britain for testing.</div>
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<br /></div>
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For the Norwegian Army Air Service aircraft the only option
for escape was Finland, where the planes would be interned but at least not
fall into the hands of the Germans. In all two Fokker C.V.s and one de
Havilland Tiger Moth made it across the border and onto Finnish airfields just
before the capitulation of mainland Norway. All navy and army aircraft that
fled to Finland were pressed into service with the Finnish Air Force.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Army and Navy air services established themselves in
Britain under the command of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Norwegian air and
ground crews operated as part of the British Royal Air Force, in both wholly
Norwegian squadrons and also in other squadrons and units such as RAF Ferry
Command and RAF Bomber Command. In particular, Norwegian personnel operated two
squadrons of Supermarine Spitfires: RAF 132 (Norwegian) Wing consisted of No.
331 (Norwegian) Squadron and RAF No. 332 (Norwegian) Squadron. Both planes and
running costs were financed by the exiled Norwegian government.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In the autumn of 1940, a Norwegian training center known as
"Little Norway" was established in RCAF Station Borden outside of
Toronto, Canada.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) was established by a
royal decree on 1 November 1944, thereby merging the Army and Navy air forces.
No. 331 (Norwegian) Squadron defended London from 1941 and was the highest
scoring fighter squadron in South England during the war.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Up until 8 May 1945, 335 persons had lost their lives while
taking part in the efforts of the RNoAF.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-66614917463237104472015-06-30T04:05:00.000-07:002015-06-30T04:05:01.654-07:00Finnish-Soviet War (25 June 1941- 4 September 1944) (Continuation War) <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgegGpRbkgS4dxwt-WpqGWcbELu3n8OarWf13dVlGoB84me4qFG_abRfFICR3yflb0yI4vmeQpsm8zuvyvMod_nXMH7ImeBH1z0oqqyQK9Mz1dmQjh4xMhOlwS-t_GJOWBc9TMYu1oRCRw1/s1600/B6jlSMyIAAA4Ab4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgegGpRbkgS4dxwt-WpqGWcbELu3n8OarWf13dVlGoB84me4qFG_abRfFICR3yflb0yI4vmeQpsm8zuvyvMod_nXMH7ImeBH1z0oqqyQK9Mz1dmQjh4xMhOlwS-t_GJOWBc9TMYu1oRCRw1/s400/B6jlSMyIAAA4Ab4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Finnish troops passing by the remains of a destroyed Soviet T-34 at the
battle of Tali-Ihantala.</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOrHar_NkvADTJpoeVD6KggaRhKvT6UjhTdNJ1M-eZPD7HqnhCLn6vnInk-Xll-yvqKTB990g4vKGueCEcxx0ia1XrQTzRqBSejjNp8RXlIodqIN1LrKLLORKD137nk85iVQ9z4kskLxqF/s1600/Continuation_War_July_1941_English.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOrHar_NkvADTJpoeVD6KggaRhKvT6UjhTdNJ1M-eZPD7HqnhCLn6vnInk-Xll-yvqKTB990g4vKGueCEcxx0ia1XrQTzRqBSejjNp8RXlIodqIN1LrKLLORKD137nk85iVQ9z4kskLxqF/s400/Continuation_War_July_1941_English.jpg" width="285" /></a></div>
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Finnish, German, and Soviet troops at the start of the Continuation War
in June/July 1941. The Germans began their assault on 29 June from Petsamo
area, and the Finns attacked on 1 July from Suomussalmi and Kuusamo area.</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Renewal of warfare between Finland and the Soviet Union,
also called the Continuation War. The fighting occurred mainly northwest and
northeast of the Soviet city of Leningrad. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finland's rejection of Soviet demands for territory and
bases to protect access to Leningrad-including the cession of Viipuri (Vyborg),
Finland's second-largest city, and the surrounding Karelian Isthmus-led to the
first Finnish- Soviet War, known as the Winter War. The war began in November
1939, and although the Finns fought well, the odds against them were hopeless.
In March 1940, Finland was obliged to sue for peace, in which it had to cede
even more territory that the Soviets had originally demanded. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fearing additional Soviet demands and resenting Soviet
interference in its policies, Finland aligned itself with Germany. In fall
1940, chief of the Finnish General Staff Lieutenant General Erik Heinrichs held
talks in Berlin with German leaders, who requested Finnish assistance during
Operation BARBAROSSA, the planned German invasion of the Soviet Union (chiefly
of Leningrad and Murmansk). The Finnish government welcomed this as an
opportunity to recover territory lost to the Soviet Union in the Winter War. As
planning progressed, the Germans and Finns agreed that German forces would
secure the nickel-rich Petsamo region and attack Murmansk in the far north,
while the Finns would be responsible for operations in the southeast toward
Leningrad and Soviet Karelia, centered around Petrozavodsk. General Carl
Mannerheim (he was raised to field marshal in 1942) commanded the Finnish
forces, as he had in the Winter War of 1939-1940. Mannerheim had 16 divisions:
11 along the frontiers, 1 opposite the Russian base at Hanko, and 4 in reserve.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 22 June 1941, the Germans launched their massive invasion
of the Soviet Union. Finland had already secretly mobilized its forces and
declared war on 25 June, but as a cobelligerent of Germany rather than as an
ally. The German drive in the far north from Petsamo eastward fell short of
both Murmansk and the large Soviet naval base at Polyarny. German forces also
had little luck driving east from the northern city of Rovaniemi, failing to
cut the Soviet rail line running from Murmansk south along the White Sea coast.
In the south, however, the Finns made much better progress. Preoccupied with
the massive German onslaught, Red Army forces north of Leningrad were
outnumbered. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
General Mannerheim divided his forces into two armies: one
drove down the Karelian Isthmus between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga,
and the other marched southeast between Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega toward the
Svir River to take Petrozavodsk, capital of Karelia. On 29 June, the Finnish
Karelian Army (II, IV, VI, and VII Corps) attacked to the west and east of Lake
Ladoga, crossing the Russo-Finnish border of 1940, recapturing Finnish Karelia,
and driving on toward Leningrad. Aided by German contingents, Army Group
Mannerheim attacked Soviet Karelia. Farther north, combined Finnish and German
forces recaptured lost Finnish territory around Salla while the German mountain
troops, coming from Norway, reached as far as the Litsa River on their drive
toward Murmansk. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Finns had originally planned to unite their troops with
German Army Group North around Leningrad. On 1 September, the Finns reached the
old Russo-Finnish border. Despite heavy fighting, the Soviets were able to
withdraw, but by late August the Finns had recovered all territory lost to the
Soviet Union in the Winter War. The Finnish attacks stalled north of Lake
Ladoga in September. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although the Finns were not eager to take non-Finnish land,
they did advance somewhat beyond the pre- November 1939 borders for defensive
purposes. Much to Germany's displeasure, however, they refused to cooperate
with German troops against the city of Leningrad. Finnish and German commanders
disliked each other, and the German air force failed to provide as much air
cover as had been promised. German troops did not perform well in the northern
part of the front. In the dense forests and swamps that marked the terrain in
the north, tanks, heavy artillery, and aircraft were often ineffective. Finnish
casualties were not light, and Finland had a small population and insufficient
resources for a long war. Given these points, the Finns only undertook those
operations that suited them, and that did not include Leningrad. The Finns were
nonetheless disappointed that the German army was unable to secure a rapid
defeat of the Soviet Union. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After capturing Petrozavodsk and Medweschjegorsk on the
western and northern shore of Lake Onega, in December the Finns established a
defensive position somewhat inside Soviet territory and about 20 miles from
Leningrad. Had the Finns advanced farther, Leningrad would probably have fallen
to the Germans, with uncertain consequences for the fighting on the Eastern
Front. The Finnish Front remained largely static from early 1942. Despite some
Soviet counterattacks toward Petsamo, the battle lines changed very little in
the months to follow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At this point, in August 1942, Moscow offered the Finns
extensive territorial concessions in return for a separate peace, but the
Finns, confident of an ultimate German victory, refused. In September 1941,
London and Washington made it clear to Helsinki that any Finnish effort to
advance beyond its prewar frontiers would mean war. Indeed, Britain declared
war on Finland in December 1941. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As the war continued into 1942 and then 1943, the Finns lost
enthusiasm for the struggle, especially when German military fortunes changed.
In January 1944, a Soviet offensive south of Leningrad broke the blockade of
that city. With the tide fast turning against Germany, the Finns asked the
Soviets for peace terms, but the response was so harsh that Finland rejected
it. Not only would Finland have to surrender all its territorial gains, but it
would have to pay a large indemnity. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soviet leader Josef Stalin then decided to drive Finland
from the war. The Soviets assembled some 45 divisions with about half a million
men, more than 800 tanks, and some 2,000 aircraft. Using these assets, in June
1944 the Soviets began an advance into Finland on both flanks of Lake Ladoga on
the relatively narrow Karelian and Leningrad Fronts. While the Finns were well
entrenched along three defensive lines, they could not withstand the Soviet onslaught.
Viipuri fell on 20 June after less stubborn resistance than during the Winter
War. Heavy fighting also occurred in eastern Karelia. Although they failed to
achieve a breakthrough, Soviet forces caused the Finns to retreat and took the
Murmansk Railway. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the fall of Viipuri, the Finnish government requested
German assistance. The Germans furnished dive-bombers, artillery, and then some
troops, but it demanded in return that Finland ally itself firmly with Germany
and promise not to conclude a separate peace. President Risto Ryti, who had
been forced to provide a letter to that effect to German Foreign Minister
Joachim von Ribbentrop (which bound him, but not his country, to such a
policy), resigned on 1 August in favor of Marshal Mannerheim. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 25 August, Helsinki asked for terms. Moscow agreed to a
cease-fire to take effect on 4 September, but Soviet forces actually fought on
for another day after that. One of the ceasefire terms was that the Finns
should break diplomatic relations with Berlin and order all German troops from
Finnish soil by 15 September. German leader Adolf Hitler refused the Finnish
request for an orderly departure of his forces and ordered German troops in
northern Finland to resist expulsion and, if forced to retreat, to lay waste to
the countryside. The German troops followed this order to the letter. Because
there were 200,000 Germans in Finland, the damage to Lapland, where they were
located, was considerable. During October, the Russian Fourteenth Army threw
back German forces at Liza, supported by a large amphibious landing near
Petsamo, and by the end of the month the Germans had withdrawn completely into
Norway. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The war ended for Finland on 15 October 1944. The
Continuation War cost Finland some 200,000 casualties (55,000 dead)-a
catastrophic figure for a nation of fewer than 4 million people. Finland also
had to absorb 200,000 refugees. Finland agreed to withdraw its forces back to
the 1940 frontiers, placed its military on a peacetime footing within two and
one-half months, granted a 50-year lease of the Porkkala District, allowed the
Soviets access to ports and airfields in southern Finland, and provided the
Soviet Union use of the Finnish merchant navy while the war continued in
Europe. Finland also paid reparations of US$300 million in gold over a six-year
period. Stalin did refrain from absorbing the entire country, but in the coming
decades Western-oriented democratic Finland was obliged to follow policies that
would not alienate the Soviet Union.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References</b>
Lundin, C. Leonard. Finland in the Second World War. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1957. Vehviläinen, Olli. Finland in the Second World War. New
York: Palgrave, 2002. Wuorinen, J. H. Finland and World War II, 1939-1944. New
York: Ronald Press, 1948.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-23876128429688464652015-06-30T04:03:00.002-07:002015-06-30T04:03:21.335-07:00Finland Leaves WWII<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcPDgZhJiaWOMB52KBAQAE1cXaNX1miXj5k94vicBX9dYErYXF_RsjLNaC175Ep38fCDg8nIP3BP2b0dY49hab_vBdHOwzIRa309lgt5p1unVrUwRvvdN-lyrQrlDhAVWxYdcCeMsQaUrg/s1600/Finland-1944-Map-15.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcPDgZhJiaWOMB52KBAQAE1cXaNX1miXj5k94vicBX9dYErYXF_RsjLNaC175Ep38fCDg8nIP3BP2b0dY49hab_vBdHOwzIRa309lgt5p1unVrUwRvvdN-lyrQrlDhAVWxYdcCeMsQaUrg/s400/Finland-1944-Map-15.jpg" width="318" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The northern theatre of war in 1944.</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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It came as a great relief to the Germans when they realized that
the Finns would do their best to get German troops out of the country as
peacefully and as quickly as possible by 15 September 1944, which was the
deadline for internment according to the armistice conditions. When Romania had
laid down its arms, the German 6th Army, which had been fighting there, had
been trapped and destroyed. Above all, the Germans wanted to avoid the same
fate in Finland. There was just enough time to save the military staffs, the
medical personal, the wounded and civilians in southern Finland. Hitler
immediately issued an order on 3 September that relations with Finland should
be handled in a spirit of `friendly accord'. By avoiding any kind of conflict
with the Finns, the Germans also gained the time to extract the 20th Mountain Army
from northern Finland. </div>
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<br /></div>
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When the time limit ran out on 15 September, the Germans
made a surprise attack and tried to seize Hogland Island. In accordance with
his instructions, the commander of the Finnish forces on the island gave the
order to open fire. The invasion was repelled, and over a thousand Germans were
taken prisoner. The battle of Hogland demonstrated that the Finnish Army was
willing and able to fight against its recent brothers- in-arms. This to some
extent eased the position of the Finnish government at a time when matters in
Moscow were delicately balanced. </div>
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<br /></div>
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When Finland withdrew from the war, the 20th Mountain Army
found itself in an untenable position. Its southern flank was left completely
open, and its supply lines to the harbours of Finland were cut. The order that
Hitler had given in September 1943 to withdraw to northern Lapland but to keep
control of the Pechenga nickel mines in the event of Finland pulling out of the
war was still in force. </div>
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The Germans expected the Russians to give pursuit, and
in order to make this pursuit more difficult, it would be necessary to lay
waste wide tracts of land. The withdrawal of the Mountain Army began at the
beginning of September 1944, a few days after the armistice came into force. In
northern Finland and adjoining areas, the Germans had over 200,000 men - mostly
unmotorized infantry - and large stores. Nobody imagined that it would be
possible for them to pack up and go in a couple of weeks. According to
calculations previously made by the Finnish military authorities, three months
would hardly suffice. The Finns were weary of the war and wanted to save their
land from devastation. The Germans, too, wished to avoid an armed confrontation
as far as possible. Thus there was a certain unity of interests although
official relations were severed, and this resulted in a secret agreement
between the Finnish and German military authorities in which the Germans agreed
to limit the devastation of the country and the Finns to facilitate the
Germans' withdrawal even after 15 September. At first, the Finnish forces
followed behind the retreating Germans in accordance with an agreed timetable
in such a way as to avoid contact with them. Wide tracts of the country were
spared from destruction, and the people of Lapland were successfully evacuated
from the war zone to areas further south and to Sweden. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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At the beginning of October, Hitler finally renounced the
earlier plan for the Germans to hold northern Lapland and ordered the 20th
Mountain Army to pull out into Norway. He was prompted to do this by
difficulties in maintaining supplies to the German forces as well as by the
realization that the nickel from Pechenga was no longer indispensable to the
German war economy. The Germans might have left northern Finland without a
fight, but this did not suit the Russians. The phoney war that the Finns were
conducting in the north was glaringly at odds with the terms of the armistice
agreement, and it placed the whole country in jeopardy. The Allied Control
Commission, which had arrived in Finland at the end of September, intervened
sharply and demanded effective measures against the Germans. Finally, on 30
September, the acting Chairman of the Control Commission, Lieutenant-General
Savonenkov, presented the Finns with a direct ultimatum. The Finns had now got
their troops into position in northern Finland and Mannerheim ordered their
commander, General Hjalmar Siilasvuo, to do something spectacular enough to
satisfy the Russians. `The fate of Finland now rests on the shoulders of the
general!' he said. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Finns' war against the Germans began with Siilasvuo's
daring landing behind German lines at Tornio on 1 October. His advance
northwards was slow, however, as the Germans blew up the bridges and mined the
roads. In this they no longer showed any scruples, and they also burned down
all dwellings. Soviet troops did not take part in the war operations conducted
on Finnish soil. On the other hand, they did launch an offensive of their own
on the coast of the Barents Sea, taking Pechenga and advancing into northern
Norway. By the end of the year, the Germans had withdrawn from Finnish
territory completely, apart from the extreme north-western corner. The Finns
were left with a devastated Lapland, which only slowly came back to life as the
population returned to their burned villages. </div>
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Finland succeeded in making peace much more easily and with
less damage than the other states that had fought alongside Germany. The Soviet
Union occupied Romania and Bulgaria in its prosecution of the war, Hungary
remained a theatre of war for a long time, and in the end it, too, was occupied
by the Soviet Union. All three ended up with communist regimes as a result of
the occupation. Finland never became a field of battle between the great
powers, and it was never occupied. Losses among the civilian population were
small, and the major centres of population and industry together with the road
and rail network survived intact, except in Lapland. However, in the autumn of
1944, the Finns were prepared for the worst. Surrender was out of the question.
The army prepared to continue the struggle by means of guerrilla warfare if the
country was occupied. Under cover of the darkness of autumn, intelligence
personnel, technical equipment and files were shipped to Sweden, and arms for
nearly 35,000 men were hidden in caches around the country. </div>
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The USSR indeed threatened to occupy Finland if it did not
comply with the armistice conditions. However, Stalin probably thought that the
armistice was enough to secure Soviet interests in Finland. The Soviet Union
held all the trump cards. Above all, it had the base in Porkkala. The central
part of the `Sea Fortress of Peter the Great', which had been built in the last
years of the Czars to defend the capital of the empire, was constituted by the
heavy gun emplacements in Porkkala and on the Estonian coast, which could close
off access to the Gulf of Finland by means of cross-fire. Porkkala was to serve
the same purpose again in 1944. And just as in the days of the last czar, the
Russian coastal fortifications had another function: to curb the unreliable
Finns, whose capital was now within the range of their heavy guns. </div>
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Although the immediate threat of occupation had been
avoided, the post-war situation frightened many Finns. The communists would
come out into the open. They would be able to take advantage of the people's
economic plight and their frustration at defeat in the war. `From now on,
Aaltonen is the commander-in-chief', Mannerheim is reported to have said.
Aleksi Aaltonen was the Social Democratic Party Secretary. The battle would go
on, but the front line would now be inside the borders of the country.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-17041089473734714502015-06-30T03:59:00.001-07:002015-06-30T03:59:22.793-07:00FINLAND IN WWII<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioEthVCwmgLWRURAF48e4X8krZoGqhDULhepLKOfjoXSt8rY9WQH09RlPUm3YCgvrHIbvU-On3hAbl5LNLJ7WQoCl9EmR-m-dARP4LFrpzRlGXNlg71AAJjdspqodRuwQqoQE-7rdsGhHZ/s1600/154930.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioEthVCwmgLWRURAF48e4X8krZoGqhDULhepLKOfjoXSt8rY9WQH09RlPUm3YCgvrHIbvU-On3hAbl5LNLJ7WQoCl9EmR-m-dARP4LFrpzRlGXNlg71AAJjdspqodRuwQqoQE-7rdsGhHZ/s400/154930.jpg" width="307" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Finns. Talvisota, Jatkosota & Lapisota, three wars during WW2. </b></i></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJPdteDU5l4OMXOtsoL1dDZTGnFL-iTjThMcMqEDrdlrEjj7eG-lbEvMLN8plQrF77hLtmjHj1TVHkKezxRL2HWfyZBJr_CHgDctMaiTzhbHmwCxTAr42hcOatvcYyMtB_n9_RkM4m7x1/s1600/Continuation_War_July_1941_English.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJPdteDU5l4OMXOtsoL1dDZTGnFL-iTjThMcMqEDrdlrEjj7eG-lbEvMLN8plQrF77hLtmjHj1TVHkKezxRL2HWfyZBJr_CHgDctMaiTzhbHmwCxTAr42hcOatvcYyMtB_n9_RkM4m7x1/s400/Continuation_War_July_1941_English.jpg" width="285" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>Finnish, German, and Soviet troops at the start of the Continuation War in June/July 1941. The Germans began their assault on 29 June from Petsamo area, and the Finns attacked on 1 July from Suomussalmi and Kuusamo area.</b></i><br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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In the interwar period Finland maintained an uneasy
neutrality. In 1939-1940 it fought the defensive Finnish-Soviet War
(1939-1940). Its territorial losses as a result of that conflict were an
outcome foreordained by the demographic reality that just 4 million Finns faced
a population of 171 million in the pre-1941 Soviet Union, and that the Red Army
was the largest armed force in the world. Finland did not have German support
while fighting the Soviets in 1939. Adolf Hitler began to view Finland
differently as he prepared to launch Operation BARBAROSSA, starting as early as
July 1940. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
German arms were delivered to the Finns, transit agreements were
signed permitting German troops to move across Finnish territory to and from
conquered Norway, and full military staff conversations began in December.
Moscow did not know the full extent of Finish-German military coordination, but
even its fear of Germany's unabated appetite for ever more territory was finally
aroused. Hitler's creeping influence in a country that Joseph Stalin viewed as
within his sphere of influence, as previously agreed between Moscow and Berlin,
raised anger and fear in the Kremlin. The question of which Great Power would
exercise ultimate hegemony over Finland thus became a critical diplomatic issue
in the year between the fall of France in June 1940 and the Axis invasion of
the Soviet Union in June 1941. Finland joined the Axis attack on the Soviet
Union after a strictly operational delay of a few days, but Finland was never a
full Axis state in spirit or intent. For the Finns, resumption of active
hostilities with the Soviet Union was solely an effort to reverse their loss of
1940, a strictly limited war aim reflected in their term for the conflict:
"Continuation War." </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Finnish Army of 1941 was greatly expanded from its
dispositions of 1939: it fielded 16 excellent divisions equipped with modern
German weapons. Wehrmacht land, air, and naval forces took up attack positions
in northern Finland in April-June, 1941. Preparatory to BARBAROSSA, four German
divisions were allowed into Lapland to open a high Arctic front. On the opening
day of the campaign, June 22, the Finnish Navy occupied the Aland Islands
without interference by the Soviet Navy. German troops also attacked out of
Lapland toward Murmansk and the Kola Peninsula. Finnish troops opened a
southern front in Karelia a few days later. Once the Finns reached their old
1939 boundary they stopped, encouraged to do so by heavy pressure from the
United States, but not before Great Britain declared war on Finland in
solidarity with the Soviet Union. In that desperate hour for London, any enemy
of Hitler was Britain's ally, and any ally of Germany was necessarily Britain's
enemy. The Finns did not advance farther during the rest of the war. Trying to
take Leningrad and Moscow were German, not Finnish, war aims. Even so, the
effort to recover lost territory by swimming with the turn of the geopolitical
tide in 1941 engaged the Finns in a long war on what became the northernmost
section of the Eastern Front: fighting against the Red Army lasted from June
1941 to September 1944, with more limited fighting against the Germans after
that. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Over the course of the naval war, the Finnish Navy lost one
monitor, six minesweepers, and 50 merchantmen and coastal patrol ships. Finland
lost far more men in land combat, as Hitler's BARBAROSSA operation failed by
the end of November 1941. The Red Army counterattacked in the Moscow offensive
operation (December 5, 1941-January 7, 1942) and the Rzhev-Viazma strategic
operation (January 8-April 20, 1942). The Finnish front thereafter stretched
from German positions outside Leningrad, across southern Karelia and along the
forest zone of the eastern frontier, to a distant fight by mainly German troops
in the high Arctic Circle. The Finns again held back from advancing toward
Leningrad, but their presence in southern Karelia completed a three-sided
German lock on that starving city throughout the 900-day siege of Leningrad.
The Finns also placed restrictions on permitted Wehrmacht operations in their
high Arctic territory, including during Operation LACHSFANG. By the end of 1942
the Finns were in the increasingly difficult position of waiting to see which
of their vastly more powerful neighbors would win the war along the Eastern
Front. They were also influenced by pressure from Washington not to exceed
recovery of their national territory, on pain of incurring American displeasure
or even a declaration of war to match Britain's. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Germany was clearly losing the war at the start of 1943, a
fact brought home to the Finns by German defeats at El Alamein and Stalingrad.
The Finns opened secret talks with Moscow in an effort to withdraw from the war
by negotiating a limited frontier settlement. But Moscow and Helsinki could not
agree on where to draw the border in Karelia, the mutual casus belli in 1939
and again in 1941. The Red Army went over to the permanent offensive all along
the Eastern Front in the late summer of 1943, following another great victory
at Kursk and follow-on counteroffensives in the north and in Ukraine.
Finnish-Soviet talks broke down in February 1944, even as German Army Group
North was pushed back from Leningrad to the Panther Line section of the
Ostwall. The Red Army attacked the main Finnish position on the Mannerheim Line
on June 10, 1944, achieving complete operational surprise. Soviet tanks and
mobile infantry broke through the next day. The Finns now discovered how
greatly improved in combat performance the Red Army was since the winter of
1939-1940. Soviet forces were far superior in weapons, veteran troops, and
proven commanders. General Leonid A. Govorov's Karelian Front took Vyborg
within two weeks, a triumph for which he was promoted to "Marshal of the
Soviet Union." The Stavka launched the second phase of the
"Svir-Petrozavodsk operation," a full-scale invasion of lower
Finland, through the southern forests on June 21. At first, Hitler sent German
reinforcements to Finland in exchange for agreement that Helsinki would not
accept a separate peace with Moscow. But the combat pressure from Karelian
Front was relentless, while the Germans were themselves knocked backward 300
miles by the stunning Soviet achievement of Operation BAGRATION in Belorussia.
That marked the start of a cascading series of Soviet victories and
catastrophic German defeats in the center of the Eastern Front, which left the
more northern German and Finnish flank hanging. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Compared to its performance in Finland in 1939-1940, the Red
Army's second campaign in Karelia was a superior example of combined arms
warfare, or Blitzkrieg. Yet, Moscow did not pursue total war against Finland
the way it did against all other Axis states. Stalin was prepared to offer
terms to the Finns partly in response to intervention by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt and the wider issues of alliance politics that might be adversely
affected. Nevertheless, events on the ground had a life of their own. Elements
of the powerful Karelian Front crossed the Svir River, forcing the Finnish Army
back under great pressure. The Soviets took the provincial capital of
Petrozavodsk on June 28. Other Red Army Fronts simultaneously attacked in
central and northern Finland, at Salla and Petsamo, where they battered German
20th Mountain Army. That isolated 200,000 Axis troops, left guarding a
peripheral position by Hitler, while the center and south of the entire Eastern
Front were collapsing for want of men. By August 9, the Red Army achieved all
goals set by the Stavka for the summer campaign in the north. Events outside
Finland also conduced to lessened Soviet operations. German resistance in
Estonia and Latvia collapsed during late July, in tandem with a general
military crisis for the Germans attendant on the devastation of Army Group
Center in BAGRATION. That defeat signaled to Helsinki that it needed to get out
of the war before Finland, too, was wholly overrun. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mannerheim was brought back
to the presidency on August 4, tasked to negotiate an exit from the war. On
August 24 the cabinet agreed to seek a ceasefire and armistice with Moscow. Soviet
troops stopped advancing five days later. On September 2 the Finns formally
severed alliance ties to Germany. A ceasefire was agreed with the Soviets three
days after that. Retreating Germans tried to seize the critical Finnish island
of Suursaan (or Hogland) in the Gulf of Finland. The attempt was beaten off by
Soviets and Finns fighting in tandem against the Germans for the first time. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finland signed a formal armistice with Moscow on September
19, 1944. The agreement restored the expanded Soviet border of 1940, confirming
that Finland had lost the "Continuation War" as well as the earlier
Finnish-Soviet War. Helsinki surrendered rights to a Soviet naval base at
Petsamo and to a Red Army and VVS air base outside Helsinki. The key to the
armistice was that it required Finland to declare war on Germany and the
Finnish Army to actively expel all Wehrmacht and SS troops from the country.
But Finnish soldiers proved lax about enforcing that clause against men who
were comrades-in-arms just days earlier. Instead, the Finnish Army simply
watched German troops flee the country. In some cases, the Finns peacefully
escorted rather than harried German troops on their way out during the
Wehrmacht's BIRKE withdrawal operation (September 3-29, 1944). There was only
one serious armed clash during September between Finnish and German troops.
More serious clashes between Finns and Germans marked the later Lapland War,
fought during the winter of 1944-1945 with the last German troops in the high
Arctic. Under great Soviet pressure, Finland formally declared war on Germany
on March 3, 1945. The last German troops left the high north a month later.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
American support for Finland's independence helped prevent
its incorporation into the Soviet Union as another lost tsarist province and
kept it outside the quickly forming bloc of Soviet client states. In 1947 a
formal peace treaty was signed between Finland and those Allied states with
which it had been formally at war. Helsinki permanently surrendered its
disputed Karelian territory to the Soviet Union. It was thereafter compelled to
adopt the Soviet foreign policy line throughout the Cold War, but it was not
forced to host Soviet armed forces beyond a single base at Porkkala. That base
was later exchanged for a Soviet lease on Hangö, which was in turn given up by
Moscow in 1955. Unlike Czechs, Poles, or Rumanians, the Finns did not have to
adopt Soviet domestic policies and were never ruled by a puppet Communist
Party. Similar Cold War arrangements in which foreign policy obeisance to a
Great Power was combined with domestic independence became known
internationally as "Finlandization."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
LINK</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Finland_during_World_War_II">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Finland_during_World_War_II</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
LINK</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.jaegerplatoon.net/">http://www.jaegerplatoon.net/</a></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-79704740472961450992015-06-30T03:56:00.000-07:002015-06-30T03:56:01.733-07:00Skanderbeg SS<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz-YMmkG0xeZ9QbHn38dlKTEM95IiRxVA0ODpl9GIo07oAHvh9CSH6LbF8MzLxAm1eJhEER761kwi94HrQomrvyfOpIQDRYX0OXCPWNCN8Z9VxudEiBAOm427vBpm_DIpCncuABav4GCLs/s1600/002.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz-YMmkG0xeZ9QbHn38dlKTEM95IiRxVA0ODpl9GIo07oAHvh9CSH6LbF8MzLxAm1eJhEER761kwi94HrQomrvyfOpIQDRYX0OXCPWNCN8Z9VxudEiBAOm427vBpm_DIpCncuABav4GCLs/s400/002.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>Members of the Nazi Skanderbeg SS Division with an Albanian Ushtar or gendarme.</b></i><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIm6orldMeLYS_6jMfygw1rclqYXDpX4vXHsLugACjp0_wR3dJIDB4L3_Ww1cX__xN46fIA24snYlDbnqCHniqeA2uN9QFDVNNX8ZchnaZ36idVJRVVvkdw2ZJFiwyu3-uZfMLa7lYHWi3/s1600/9ulocx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIm6orldMeLYS_6jMfygw1rclqYXDpX4vXHsLugACjp0_wR3dJIDB4L3_Ww1cX__xN46fIA24snYlDbnqCHniqeA2uN9QFDVNNX8ZchnaZ36idVJRVVvkdw2ZJFiwyu3-uZfMLa7lYHWi3/s400/9ulocx.jpg" width="391" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
The historical and political precedents for the creation of
a greater Sqiperia or Greater Albania was set during World War II when the
Kosovo and Metohija regions along with territory Southwest of lake Skutari from
Montenegro and the western region of Southern Serbia, or Juzna Srbija (now part
of Macedonija), were annexed to Albania by the Axis powers led by Fascist Italy
and Nazi Germany, under a plan devised by Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler to
dismember and to destroy the Serbian Nation and people, which the Germans and
Italians perceived as the main threat to the axis powers and to the Third Reich
in the Balkan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On April 7, 1939, Italian troops invaded and occupied
Albania forcing the Albanian ruler King Zog I Ahmed Bey Zogu, to flee to
Greece. Italy formally annexed into the Kingdom of Italy under the Italian king
Victor Immanuel and established a military government and viceroy. The Italian
began a program to colonize the country when thousands of settlers emigrated to
Albania. An Albanian Fascist Party was established with Albanian Black skirts
based on Italian models. The Albanian Army consisted of three infantry brigades
of 12 000 men.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On October 28 1940, Italy invaded Greece from Albania with
10 Italian divisions and the Albanian Army but were driven back.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Germany sought to assist the Italian-Albanian offensive by
operation Alpine Violet, a plan to move a corps of tree German mountain
divisions to Albania by air and sea. Instead German built up a heavy
concentration of the German Twelfth Army on the northwest Greek Border with
Bulgaria, from where the German invasion was launched.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On April 6, 1941, Nazi Germany and the axis powers invaded
Yugoslavia, Operation Punishment, and Greece forcing the capitulation of
Yugoslavia on the 17th, and Greece on the 23rd. Yugoslavia was subsequently
occupied and dismembered. The Axis powers established a greater Albania or
greater Shqiperia at the expense of Serbia and Montenegro. Territory from
Montenegro was annexed to Greater Albania. From Serbia, the Kosovo and Metohija
were ceded to greater Albania, along with the western part of Southern Serbia
(Juzna Srbija), now part of Macedonia, an area which was part of Stara Srbija
(Ancient Old Serbia). This Kosovo-metohija region and the surrounding territory
annexed to Greater Albania was called "New Albania".</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To create an ethnically pure Shqiptar Kosovo, which Albanian
called "Kosova", the Shqiptari (Albanians) launched a widescale
campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide. Ethnic Serbs in the Kosovo-Metohija
regions were massacred, and their homes were burned, and survivors were
brutally driven out and expelled in policy of ethnic cleansing and genocide.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Balli Kombetar (BK or National Union) was an Albanian
nationalist group led by Midhat Fresheri and Ali Klissura whose political
objective was to in incorporate Kosovo-Metohija into a Greater Albania and to
ethnically cleanse the region of Orthodox Serbs</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Abanian Committee of Kosovo organized massive campaigns
of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Orthodox Serbian inhabitants of
Kosovo- Metohuja. A contemporary report described the ethnic cleansing and
genocide of Serbs as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Armed with material supplied by the Italians, the Albanians
hurled themselves against helpless settlers in their homes and villages.
According to the most reliable sources, the Albanian burned many Serbian
settlements, killing some of the people and driving out others who escaped to
the mountains. At present other Serbian settlement are being attacked and the
property of individuals and of communities is either being confiscated or
destroyed. It is not possible to ascertain at the present time the exact number
of victims of those atrocities, but it may be estimated that at least between
30.000 and 40.000 perished.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bedri Pejani, the Muslim leader of the Albanian National
committee, called for the extermination of Ortodox Serbian Cristians in Kosovo
Metohija and for a union of a Greater Albania with Bosnia and Herzegovina and
the Rashka (Sandzak) region of Serbia, into a great Islamic state. The grand
Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin El Husseini was presented to Pejani a plan which
he approved as a being in the interest of Islam. The Germans however rejected
the plan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On September 3, 1943, Italy capitulated by signing an
armistice with the Allies. The German were now forced to occupy Albania with
the collapse of the Italian forces. The Germans sent the 100th Jaeger Division
from Greece and the 297th Infantry Division from Serbia and the German 1st
Mountain Division to occupy Albania. These troops were organized into the XXI
Mountain Corps which was under the command of General Paul Bader.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Additional security forces for the interior were needed,
however, to free up Germans troops for defense of the coastline. The decision
was made to form an Albanian SS mountain division for this purpose. In April in
1944, recruitment for the Albanian SS division began under direction of the
newly formed Albanian Nazi party, which has been formed through the efforts of
Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Acting upon instructions of Reichsfuehrer SS Henrich
Himmler, the SS main office ordered the formation of an Albanian volunteer
mountain division on April 17, 1944. SS Brigadefuehrern and Generalmajor of the
Waffen SS Josef Fitzhum, who Headed the Higher SS and Police Command in
Albania, oversaw the forming and training of the division.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The SS high Command planed to create a mountain division of
10.000 men. The Higher SS and Police Command in Albania, in conduction with the
Albanian National Committee, listed 11.398 possible recruits for the Waffen SS
mountain division. Most of these recruits were "kossovars", shqiptar
Ghegs from Kosovo Metohija in Serbia. The Shqiptar Tosks were found mainly in
southern Albania. Most of the Shqiptar collaborators with the Nazi forces were
the Nazi forces were the so-called Kossovars, ethnic Shqiptars from the Kosmet
of Serbia. The Nazi German-sponsored Albanian gendarmes, special police and
para-military units were made up by Kossovars. The Kossovars were under the
direct control of the Albanian Interior Minister Xhafer Deva.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Skanderbeg Division was formed and trained in Kosovo and
was made up mostly of muslim Shqiptar Kossovars. There were only a small number
of Albanians from Albania proper in the division. The Skanderbeg Mountain
Division of the Waffen SS was thus essentially a Kosovo or Kosmet Division. The
Division was stationed and operated in Kosovo and other Serbian regions almost
exclusively.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Of the 11.398 recruits listed for the Division, 9.275 were
ascertained to be suitable to draft in the Waffen SS. Of those suitable to be
drafted, 6.491 Albanian were chosen and inducted into the Skanderbeg Division.
To this Albanian core were added veteran German troops primarily Reichdeutsche
from Austria and Volkdeutcshe officers, NCOs, and enlisted men, transferred
from the 7th SS Mountain Division "Prinz Eugen" which was stationed
in Bosnia-Hercegovina. The Kosovo Albanian 21st Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS
"Skanderbeg" consisted in total of 8.500 - 9.000 men of all ranks.
The 6.491 Shqiptar recruits were assembled at depots in Kosovo where the
formation and the training of the division began.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The official designation for the division was 21 Waffen
Gebirgs Division der SS "Skanderbeg" (Albanische Nr 1). The SS Main
Office designed a distinctive arm patch for the division, consisting of a black
double-headed eagle on a red background, the national symbol of Albania. The word
"Skanderbeg", embroidered in white, appeared above the eagle and was
warn on the left sleeve. The right collar patch consisted of a helmet with a
goat's head on top, the helmet supposedly worn by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg,
after whom the division was named. The Shqiptars recruits in the division wore
a white skullcap, the national attire of the Shqiptar Ghegs. The SS main office
also issued gray skullcaps with the Totenkopf (death's head) insignia sewn on
the front below the Hoheitszeichen (the national symbol of Nazi Germany,
consisting of a white eagle over a Nazi swastika).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Division was named after George Kastrioti, or Gjergj
Kastriota, also as Kastriotis (1405-1468), national hero of Albania, who fought
for the Ottoman Turks. As a child, Kastrioti was given as a hostage to Sultan
Murat II to be brought as a Muslim at Adrianople (Edrine). Kastrioti became an
officer in the Ottoman Turkish army and led the Turkish forces in many
victories over Christian troops. Murat II was impressed with his valor and
bravery in his battle for Islam and gave him the name Iskander Bey in Turkish,
from "Iskander", Aleksander the Great, or prince Aleksander, and
"bey", master. The name was shortened to Skanderbeg, beg being the
local variant of bey. Later Kastrioti renounced Islam and converted to
Christianity and attacked his former Ottoman Turkish masters. He captured the
Albanian capital Kroja from the Turkish governor and proclaimed a revolt
against the Turks in 1442. Sultan Mohammed II sent Turkish armies to defeat the
renegade Kastrioti, but he was able to defeat Turkish forces, which besieged
Kroja but could not capture it. Kastrioti died in 1468. Kroja surrendered in
1479 and the Turks occupied Albania.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Albanians in the Skanderbeg Division were mostly
Muslims, of the Bektashi and Sunni sects of Islam. The division contained
several hundred Albanian Catholics, followers of Jon Marko Joni.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first commander of the Skandereg division was SS
Brigadefuehrer Generalmajor of the Waffen SS Josef Fitshum, who commanded the
division from April to June 1944. After the Juli 20, assassination plot against
Hitler, Fitzhum was appointed supreme commander in Albania. In June, SS
Stardentenfuehrer August Schmidhuber was appointed division commander, a post
would hold until August 1944. On June 21, 1944, Schmidhuber was promoted to SS
Oberfuehrer and later in the war, he would be promoted to SS Brigadefuhrer. SS
Oberstrumbannfuhrer Alfred Graf commanded the reorganized remnants of the
Skanderbeg Division from August 1944, to May, 1945.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Shultzstaffel or SS was created in the period 1923-1925
and was initially known as the Stosstrupp (Shock troop) "Adolf
Hitler". On January 16, 1929, Hitler appointed Heinrich Himmler leader of
SS, Reichsfuehrer SS. The SS was envisioned as an elite troop of the Party, a
praetorian bodyguard to Hitler and the Nazi leadership. The SS was a formation
"composed of the best physically, the most dependable, and the most
faithful men in the Nazi movement. In 1940, combat units of the SS were formed,
collectively termed the Waffen SS. Approximately 30-40 Waffen SS divisions were
formed during the war, divided into three groupings, Waffen divisions made by
Germans, those made up of ethnic Germans outside the Reich, and those made up
of non-Germans. "Divisions der SS", Divisions of the SS.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On September 27,1939, Reichsfuehrer SS Heinrich Himmler as
Chief of German Police consolidated the Gestapo, Kripo, and SD under an SS Main
Office of Reich Security, or the RSHA. The RSHA was the actual body entrusted
with the overall administration of the final solution at the Jewish Problem,
what became known as the Holocaust. The SS Economic and administrative Main
Office or WVHA, run the concentration camp system. Nazi concentration camp
personnel and guards, although not under the command of the Army or the
Kommandoamt der Waffen SS, nevertheless, wore Waffen SS uniforms and received
Waffen SS paybooks. Reichfuehrer SS Heinrich Himmler oversaw a program that
resulted in the extermination of millions of men, women and children. Himmler
was the Architect of genocide and of the Holocaust and the Wafen SS was his
"private army", the black angels".</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In June,1944, The Skanderbeg Waffen SS Mountain Division
engaged in large-scale field maneuvers in the area between the towns of Berane and
Adrijevica in Monte Negro (Crna Gora). Garrisons of Skanderbeg division were
established in Kosovo towns of Pec, Jakova, Prizren, and Pristina. Further
training of the division continued in August as new recruits were inducted in
the division. An artillery battalion of the division, consisting of two
batteries, was located in Gnjilane.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first major action of the division occurred in August,
144 in Kosovo. In September, 1944, the Skanderbeg division occupied the
Southern Serbia (Juzna Srbija) region now part of the communist created
republic of Macedonia, and helped to garrison the region. The Skanderberg
division was ordered into the areas surrounding the towns Skoplje (or Skopje),
Kumanovo Presevo and Bujanovac. Sanderbeg operated in Stara Serbija (old and
Ancient Serbia) region, in the towns of Pec, Gnjilane,Djakovica, Tetovo
Gostivar, and Kosovska Mitrovica, then part of Kosovo Metohija and Southern
Serbia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In November, 1944, when the German armies in the Balkan were
retreating from Yugoslavia and the Balkans, the Skanderbeg division remnants
were reorganized into Regimentegruppe 21 SS Gebirgs "Skanderbeg" and
was transferred to Skoplje, according to one account of the movements of the
Battle group. This SS Kampfgrupe "Skanderbeg", along with the prinz
Eugen Divisin, defended the Vardar valley. The battle group
"Skanderbeg" and Prinz Eugen held the Vardar area because it was the
sole corridor of escape for the retreating German armies in Alexander Loehr's
Army Group E, which was retreating from Greece and Aegean Islands.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Skanderbeg Battle Group along with the Prinz Eugen
Division retreated to the to the Brcko region of Bosnia-Herzegovina by mid-January
1945. At this time the remaining Skanderbeg personnel were incorporated into
the 14th SS Volonteer Mountain Infantry Regiment of the 7th SS division Prinz
Eugen. The remnants of the Skanderbeg Division fought in this formation until
the end of the war, retreating to Austria in May, 1945.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Skanderbeg division engaged in a policy of ethnic cleansing
and genocide against the Serbian Orthodox Christian populations of the regions
under occupation by the division in Kosovo Metohija, Montenegro, and southern
Serbia. Balkan Historian Robert Lee Wolff, in the "Balkans in Our
time", described the genocide committed against Kosovo Serbs by the
Shqiptar 21st Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS Skenderbeg as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the regions annexed by the Albanians, their so-called
Skanderbeg division, made up of members of the Albanian minority in Yugoslavia,
massacred Serbs with impunity.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Historian L.H. Stavrianos, in "The Balkan Since
1453", described the genocide committed against Orthodox Serbs by the
Shqiptar Skanderbeg Division in these terms: Yugoslav Albanians, organized in
their fascist Skanderbeg Division, conducted an indiscriminate massacre of
Serbians.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Skanderbeg Division played a role in the Holocaust, the
genocide if European Jewry, by rounding up scores of Kosovo Jews in a group
roughly 500 persons deemed enemies of the Third Reich when the division occupied
Prizren in Kosovo Metohija. The division sought to create ethnically pure
Kosovo, ethnically cleansed of Orthodox Serbs, Jews and Gypsies the
untermenschen (subhuman), who were targeted for extermination.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal declared the Shutzstaffel
or SS criminal organization and every individual member of SS was found to be a
war criminal guilty of "planning and carrying out crimes against
humanity". The Shqiptar Kosovars in the 21st Waffen Gebirgs Division
"Skanderbeg" committed war crimes and genocide against the Orthodox
Serbian population of Kosovo. The Shqiptar planned and carried out crimes
against humanity in Kosovo. Orthodox Serbians of Kosovo were the victims of
ethnic cleansing and genocide. This genocide would contribute in the Shqiptar
goal and policy to create an ethnically pure, Shqiptar Kosovo, in an attempt to
create a greater Shqiperia or greater Albania. Following World war II, the
Yugoslav Communist dictatorship allowed the policy of ethnic cleansing and
genocide against the Orthodox Serbs to continue, and indeed, gave greater
impetus and legitimacy to the policy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
---</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During World War II, the Axis powers dismembered and
occupied Yugoslavia and created a greater Albania by annexing the Serbian
region of Kosovo-Metohija by Nazi Germany, Germany formed a Shqiptar
"Kosovar" Waffen SS Division, the 21st Waffen Gebirgs Division der SS
"Skanderbeg" which engaged in a policy of ethnic cleansing and
genocide against the Orthodox Serbian population of Kosovo. The result was that
the Shqiptars, with the help of Germany, were able to virtually exterminate the
Serbian and Jews populations of Kosovo, thereby creating an ethnically pure,
Nazi German-sponsored Greater Albania or Greater Shqiperia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bosnian Muslim SS Hauptsturmfuehrer Husein Efendi Dzozo on
far left, with the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin el Husseini, and SS
Brigadeführer and Generalmajor of the Waffen SS Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig, eating
at a table under a large Nazi swastika and a banner of the SS runes. 1943.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bosnian Muslim SS Hauptsturmfuehrer Husein Efendi Dzozo, the
divisional imam, second from left, in his Waffen SS uniform, with the Grand
Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin el Husseini, with members of the Handschar SS
Division, Neuhammer, Germany, 1943.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bosnian Muslim SS Hauptsturmfuehrer and divisional imam
Husein Efendi Dzozo second from right. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in center.
Neuhammer Training Center, Germany, November, 1943. Volksdeutsche Waffen SS
Standartenfuehrer Franz Matheis is on the far right. Members of the Handschar
reconnaissance battalion set up the base plate for their mortar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bosnian Muslim Waffen SS Hauptsturmfuehrer and divisional
imam Husein Efendi Dzozo is in center. The Grand Mufti is to the right. They
are inspecting Waffen SS troops in Neuhammer, Germany, 1943. German SS officer
Emil Kuhler is on the far left. The two Waffen SS troops in front are
mortarmen.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-78722171366346596342015-06-30T03:47:00.001-07:002015-06-30T03:47:22.436-07:001944-45 WWII in Czech State and Slovakia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The Nazi puppet state in Slovakia sent small ground and air
units to fight against the Soviet Union. Formerly a province of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, after World War I Slovakia shared the twists and turns
of the history of the Czech state. But during World War II the two provinces
were split when a Nazi protectorate was set up in Slovakia under a local priest
and fascist leader, Josef Tiso (1887-1947). Slovakia adhered to the Tripartite
Pact and Axis alliance on November 23, 1940. In June 1941, it declared war on
the Soviet Union. There followed declarations of war against the Western Allies
in tandem with the German declarations of December 11, 1941. The Slovak
population did not so readily embrace these pro-German policies. At the end of
August 1944, the Slovak Uprising broke out. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SLOVAK UPRISING (1944) </div>
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Some in the fascist Slovak Army tried to play a clever game
of rising against the Germans before the arrival of the Red Army, to assert a
primary political claim for the postwar period. As with the Warsaw Uprising,
the problem was fatal mistiming. On August 29, 1944, Slovak resistance fighters
rose against the Germans, declaring "Free Slovakia" while hoping for
help from the approaching Red Army. That same day, seven Soviet Fronts were
ordered onto the "strict defensive" along the Eastern Front. Toward
the end the VVS flew in supplies and some Czech and Slovak fighters to an
isolated pocket of continuing resistance in north-central Slovakia. Czech
pilots in the VVS flew air cover over the area and a Czech-Slovak brigade was
parachuted in. Otherwise, the uprising in Slovakia was left to burn itself out.
The last stronghold of the rebels was crushed on October 27. A few survivors
made it into the Carpathians. Most were wiped out by the Wehrmacht and punitive
Schutzstaffel (SS) and criminal brigades, the latter with hands still bloody
from mass murders committed in Warsaw. Slovakia was not liberated by the Red
Army until 1945.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Like the Warsaw Rising in Poland, the Slovak rebellion was
savagely crushed by the Germans by the end of October: it was as hard for small
powers to leave the Axis at the end of the war as it was to resist annexation
at its beginning. Slovakia was defended against the assaulting Red Army by
German 1st Panzer Army. That was a misnamed force without any tanks which had
no chance against the combat power it faced in Soviet 1st and 4th Ukrainian
Fronts. Three Soviet armies broke part way into the Carpathians in
September-October during what Russian historians call the "East Carpathian
operation." After a two-month pause, a complimentary "West Carpathian
operation" was launched in January-February, 1945. It was temporarily
blocked by a stiffened defense by 600,000 Axis troops led by General Ferdinand
Schörner. Stalin and the Stavka sacked the original Soviet commander, replacing
him with General Andrei Yeremenko. He also had trouble with Slovakia's terrain:
mountain fighting was new to much of the Red Army, while in Slovakia the
Soviets faced German and Waffen-SS bitterenders. Yeremenko was reinforced and
attacked again from March to May, 1945. His “Bratislava-Brno operation “went
around the German flanks and up the Danube valley. Bratislava fell on April 4.
Brno was taken on the 28th. Tiso was found hiding in a cellar. He was hanged as
a traitor in 1947. Prime Minister Winston Churchill urged the new American
President, Harry Truman, to send American forces to take Prague. American 3rd
and 7th Armies had advanced through Bavaria against light resistance and
reached the border of western Bohemia on April 25, 1945. By Allied agreement,
liberation of Prague was left to the Red Army. Citizens of the city had other
ideas and rose on May 4, though perhaps more in celebration of expected
liberation than in violent determination to liberate themselves. </div>
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The rising cut
off remnants of Army Group Center from escape to the west or back to Germany,
so German troops tried to retake Prague. The Red Army arrived five days later,
one day after a formal ceasefire and surrender agreement at Reims went into
effect across Germany. The Soviets took down the last German resistance after a
blistering artillery barrage. There was heavy fighting in other parts of
Czechoslovakia by bitterenders in Army Group Center, especially among Waffen-SS
units. More famously, there was some fighting with a demoralized division of
the Russian Liberation Army that lasted until May 11. All that made
Czechoslovakia the first territory invaded by German troops and the last from
which they were violently expelled.</div>
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<br /></div>
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When the fighting ended, almost 720,000 Germans were marched
off to Soviet POW camps. Most remained in harsh captivity for years, working as
forced laborers in the Soviet Union. The Red Army put its losses for nine
months of the Czech and Slovak campaigns at 140,000 men. When the Soviets
withdrew their armed forces from the country, Benes returned as president of a
restored Czechoslovakia. The dawn of liberation did not last long: in 1946
Benes appointed a Communist prime minister in yet another foolhardy placatory
gesture toward Moscow. In February 1948, a Communist coup forced Benes to
resign. Klement Gottwald, a harsh Stalinist, thereafter embedded Czechoslovakia
deep inside an emerging postwar "Soviet bloc."</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-45765517707861446072015-06-30T03:44:00.001-07:002015-06-30T03:44:29.631-07:00Mannerheim Line <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu5xEdjxGWJWRIB0C08rQuxMV9hOVoIzVoNtGoHBEjeXAcpdCKtvy2n8ZIOMt0Ls-67LbA_I-2zAJ-AFjgkx86971iUV6AmHBk-VFJas-zqWpjWKXtSreEkPek8GA5IZ3W2JWWytkmJUbv/s1600/Winter_War.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu5xEdjxGWJWRIB0C08rQuxMV9hOVoIzVoNtGoHBEjeXAcpdCKtvy2n8ZIOMt0Ls-67LbA_I-2zAJ-AFjgkx86971iUV6AmHBk-VFJas-zqWpjWKXtSreEkPek8GA5IZ3W2JWWytkmJUbv/s640/Winter_War.jpg" width="411" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFdQmyWFW8TvxB3DquorwZpUua1V8WziQ9mJUlOgkomDKq5YrVOJigwh4U3o7mYtZfGSMR4ro0aW2eF9ZfBXye3BuLW2YAXad1668z1hO45O4uY0ohA5jIdoW9g86DXkFVk8hIFGLn-zgM/s1600/3919817067_33ab8d672a_o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFdQmyWFW8TvxB3DquorwZpUua1V8WziQ9mJUlOgkomDKq5YrVOJigwh4U3o7mYtZfGSMR4ro0aW2eF9ZfBXye3BuLW2YAXad1668z1hO45O4uY0ohA5jIdoW9g86DXkFVk8hIFGLn-zgM/s400/3919817067_33ab8d672a_o.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
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A line of defensive fortifications extending across the
Karelian Isthmus from the Gulf of Finland to Lake Ladoga, the Mannerheim Line
was named for Carl Gustav Emil von Mannerheim, the Finnish military commander
and president who, as chairman of the Finnish defense council, advocated
construction of the line and oversaw its construction. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Mannerheim Line was intended to defend against a Soviet
invasion of Finland, and it was here that the most intense fighting of the
Russo-Finnish War (Winter War) took place in 1939. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Mannerheim Line was first planned after the Finnish
civil war, which followed the conclusion of World War I. Construction began in
the 1920s and continued throughout the 1930s. When completed, the fortification
line consisted of approximately 200 machine-gun emplacements encased in
concrete bunkers. The Mannerheim Line was incomplete by the outbreak of the
Russo- Finnish War but proved effective nonetheless. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The great advantage of the Mannerheim Line over the more
extensive and more famous Maginot Line built by the French along their border
with Germany was in its use of the natural terrain to leverage the
effectiveness of its defenses. Whereas the Maginot Line and other traditional
line fortifications used massive bunkers and other artificial structures, the
Mannerheim Line exploited such landscape features as boulders and fallen trees.
Whereas the Maginot Line was exceedingly conspicuous, the Mannerheim Line was
skillfully camouflaged and thus a far more effective defensive position. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Although superior Red Army numbers eventually forced the
surrender of Finland, the Mannerheim Line defenses stalled the Soviet advance
for two very bloody months. Embarrassed by the cost of the invasion of Finland,
Soviet commanders and politicians greatly exaggerated the extent and
construction of the Mannerheim Line, as if to suggest that it was virtually
impregnable. It was, in fact, for the most part a series of trenches and common
field fortifications punctuated at considerable intervals by more substantial
bunkers. Machine guns were the weapon of choice. The Mannerheim Line had
virtually no artillery positions. Skillful defense by Finnish troops, not
impregnable military architecture, was responsible for the effectiveness of the
Mannerheim Line.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Air War </b></div>
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The Soviet-Finnish conflict in the winter of 1939-1940,
mostly over strategically important territories of the Karelian Isthmus. The
air operations demonstrated the abilities and constraints of airpower in action
in severe weather and over difficult and heavily wooded terrain. At the
outbreak of hostilities, the Soviet air force had assembled about 900 aircraft,
expecting an easy and quick campaign. Then Finnish air force had 162 mostly
obsolete aircraft of all types. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Enjoying permanent air superiority in the course of the war,
the Red Air Force was able to secure vulnerable rear areas from air strikes but
failed to eliminate in a surprise strike the dispersed Finnish combat aircraft
on the ground. Soviet airpower was engaged primarily in close support, air
cover, and airlifting of assaulting troops in the Karelian Isthmus, some
limited air operations in the Arctic area, as well as bombing raids on more
than 160 rear targets. </div>
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Despite large-scale employment of bombers in daytime and
clear-weather raids, the Soviets were unable to undermine Finnish defenses,
economic life, supply traffic, and morale. This was due to wintertime
navigation problems, bombing inaccuracy, and the fierce Finnish air defense,
which claimed 275-314 Soviet air losses (more than half of them bombers). </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Finns also used fighters energetically and adapted to
winter conditions: They equipped fighters with skis for takeoffs and landings
on ice and snow. Their pilots demonstrated a higher level of combat skills
compared to the Russian pilots. During the war, Finland received 240 aircraft
of all types as well as volunteer pilots from Western countries, but massive
aid was compromised by politics and logistical difficulties. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Soviets massed reinforcements (1,500-2,000 planes) in
January-February 1940 and introduced some operational and tactical changes
(nighttime and poor-weather bombing raids as well as fighter escorts).
Nevertheless, the war was won by the Soviets mostly on the ground due to the
dramatic disparity of forces involved. Moreover, the evident failure of the
Soviet air campaign was one of the primary reasons the war went on for as long
as it did. The total Russian war losses were 594 aircraft; the Finnish air
force lost 62 planes from all causes.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Finnish Air Force (in
Russo-Finnish Wars) </b></div>
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Seeds of tradition were sown in the Ilmailuvoimat (the
Finnish Air Force) during the Winter War (30 November 1939-12 March 1940)
against the Soviet Union. Finnish air operations hit their stride during the
Continuation War, so called because it continued the conflict begun by the
Soviets in 1939. The first real combat for the Ilmailuvoimat occurred during
the Soviet invasion of Finland. In this war, the Finns scored 190 confirmed
kills and more than 100 probables. They achieved a 16:1 ratio with the
Soviets-in aerial combat, the Finns shot down 16 Soviets for every one of
theirs the Soviets downed. </div>
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The small and ill-equipped Ilmailuvoimat followed certain
principals to ensure success. First, by concentrating its fighter power and
using the element of surprise, it achieved temporary air superiority. Second,
it flew in small, flexible formations. Next, it demanded that its pilots be
skilled in aerobatics and combat maneuvers. Finally, Finnish pilots were
continuously trained until they were masters in shooting accuracy. </div>
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Although Finland did not share the Nazi political ideology,
it still formed an alliance with Germany to defend itself against the Soviet
Union. When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, Finland went to
war. The air force began the Continuation War with 120 fighters (Brewsters,
Fiats, Curtisses, Morane-Saulniers, and Hurricanes) and 58 mostly obsolete
reconnaissance planes. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Initially, the Finns were quite successful against the
Soviets, achieving a 32:1 exchange ratio. As the war went on, the Finnish
forces became less effective despite the acquisition of limited numbers of
German Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs and Junkers Ju 88s. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Battle of the Gulf of Finland is the best example of air
operations during the war. The Finnish fighter pilots were successful,
attaining an average exchange ratio of 25:1. Their strategy of focusing on
aerial combat made the difference; raids on Soviet air bases were not worth the
risk. The Soviets had no shortage of aircraft but lacked experienced pilots. By
focusing on eliminating these trained Soviet pilots, the Finns achieved air
superiority. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Soviets did not wish to spend what was necessary to
defeat the Finns militarily, so on 4 September 1944 a peace agreement was
signed. The Ilmailuvoimat again finished a war with more fighters than it
started with. Finland ended with the largest proportion of aces in the world in
relation to population. Most of the Finn aces survived the war.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Further reading:</b>
Chew, Allen F. The White Death: The Epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War. East
Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2002; Engle, Eloise, and Lauri
Paananen. The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland 1939-1940.
Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1992; Trotter, William R. The Winter War, the
Russo- Finnish War of 1939-40. London: Aurum Press, 2003. Engle, Eloise, and
Lauri Paanen. The Winter War: The Russo-Finnish Conflict, 1939-1940. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990. Luukanen, Eino. Fighter over Finland: The Memoirs
of a Fighter Pilot. London: Macdonald, 1963. Nikunen, Lieutenant General (ret.)
Heikki. The Finnish Air Force (FAF): A Historical Review. Helsinki: Finnish Air
Force, 1993.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-79736069843277068142015-06-30T03:40:00.001-07:002015-06-30T03:40:12.767-07:00Finland’s Resistance 1940<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieUHHTmvtrAG6B5relTdRqTrNxevZCRLFSOymVta2Yj1jLX1bP7p-VoZt-AkEAAOypHF9qw3kQmzz5H-etDh7QTA-Zr-RqpnP4MDTvllnkiiMhDExCYn22CVS2q7cvEK9poQyxT7fRCZ-A/s1600/USMA-Finnish-3b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieUHHTmvtrAG6B5relTdRqTrNxevZCRLFSOymVta2Yj1jLX1bP7p-VoZt-AkEAAOypHF9qw3kQmzz5H-etDh7QTA-Zr-RqpnP4MDTvllnkiiMhDExCYn22CVS2q7cvEK9poQyxT7fRCZ-A/s400/USMA-Finnish-3b.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Both the Nazi–Soviet Pact of 24 August 1939 and its coda in
Moscow the following month gave Stalin a completely free hand in the north, and
he moved swiftly to capitalize on it. Hoping to protect Leningrad against any
future German attack, he tried to turn the Gulf of Finland into a Soviet
seaway, even though its northern shore was Finnish and most of its southern
shore Estonian. Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were bullied into agreements that
allowed the Red Army to be stationed at key points on their territory, and in
June 1940 their sovereignty was extinguished altogether by effective
annexation. Surrounded on three sides by mighty Russia, they had no real choice
but to acquiesce. Finland was another matter, even though she had a tiny
fraction of Russia’s population and an 800-mile border with her.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In October Stalin summoned the Finns to Moscow to be
presented with Soviet demands. They sent the leader of the Social Democrat
Party, Väinö Tanner, who has been described as ‘tough, tactless, stubborn and frequently
bloody-minded’, a curious choice of representative when the survival of one’s
nation was at stake. Meanwhile, they mobilized. Stalin and Molotov wanted a
thirty-year lease on the naval base of Cape Hanko, the cession of the Arctic
port of Petsamo and three small islands in the Gulf, as well as the moving back
of the frontier on the Karelian Isthmus, which was presently only 15 miles from
Leningrad. In return for these 1,066 square miles of territory, the Russians
were willing to give Finland 2,134 square miles of Russian Karelia around
Repola and Porajorpi.</div>
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<br /></div>
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On the face of it, the deal did not look unreasonable, but
when considered strategically the key nodal points the Bolshevik leaders were
demanding made it clear that Finnish sovereignty would be hopelessly
compromised, and the Finns decided to fight rather than submit. Matters were
not helped when Tanner mentioned his and Stalin’s supposedly shared Menshevik
past, a libel on the Bolshevik leader. On 28 November the USSR abrogated its
1932 non-aggression treaty with Finland and two days later, without declaring
war, the Russians bombed Helsinki and invaded Finland with 1.2 million men,
opening a bitter 105-day struggle that some have likened to the Spartans’ stand
at Thermopylae.</div>
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The world prepared to watch another small nation being
crushed by a totalitarian monolith. The Finnish Army comprised ten divisions,
with only thirty-six artillery pieces per division, all of pre-1918 vintage,
and inadequate small arms (although they did have the excellent 9mm Suomi
machine pistol), supported by few modern aircraft. ‘They lacked everything,’
one historian has noted, ‘except courage and discipline.’ The Russians, by
contrast, came across the border with 1,500 tanks, 3,000 aircraft and a
complete assumption of a quick victory, as in Poland. The Red Army divided its
attack into four parts: the Seventh and Thirteenth Armies would smash through
the Finnish defences on the Karelian Isthmus known as the Mannerheim Line and
capture Viipuri (Viborg), the second city of Finland. Meanwhile the Eighth Army
would march round the northern shore of Lake Lagoda to fall on Viipuri from the
north. The Ninth Army would attack the waist of Finland, slicing it in two, and
in the far north the Fourteenth Army would capture Petsamo and Nautsi, cutting
the country off from the Arctic Sea. The comprehensiveness of the plan has been
described by one military historian as ‘imaginative, flexible and totally
unrealistic’.</div>
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Although the Fourteenth Army took its objectives in the
first ten days, nothing else went right for the Russians for the next two
months. The Seventh Army, comprising twelve divisions, three tank brigades and
a mechanized corps, could not break through the wilderness of barbed wire, gun
emplacements, anti-tank ‘dragons’ teeth’ and well-camouflaged pillboxes of the
Mannerheim Line, which was fiercely defended. The frozen ground was so hard
that the Red Army occasionally had to use dynamite to move enough earth to
build makeshift trenches. Even though the Finns had never faced tanks before,
and were woefully under-equipped with anti-tank weapons – at least until they
captured them from the Russians – they devised makeshift ways of stopping their
advance, including, ironically enough, ‘Molotov cocktails’ (bottles of petrol lit
with rags). This proved easier in the early stages when Russian tanks were not
supported closely enough by Russian infantry, and in the dark that descended
early in the Arctic winter and stayed till late.</div>
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The seventy-two-year-old ‘Defender of Finland’ after whom
the Line was named, Field Marshal Baron Carl von Mannerheim, proved an inspired
leader throughout the campaign, keeping his reserves in the south and correctly
predicting the Russians’ next moves, possibly because he had been an officer in
the Tsarist Army throughout the Great War. Told by Moscow that the Finnish
proletariat would welcome them as liberators, the Russian soldiers were shocked
when the entire nation united behind ‘the Defender of Finland’ instead.</div>
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<br /></div>
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It was the five divisions of the Russian Ninth Army in the
centre of the country that suffered the most. Although on the map the vast
wastes might seem to favour an invader, the many forests and lakes channelled
the Russian forces, unfamiliar with the terrain, into a series of ambushes as temperatures
dipped in that unusually cold winter to as low as –50 Celsius. The
Leningrad–Murmansk railway line had only one siding going off towards the
Finnish border, and although the Russians took Salla in central Finland, they
were flung back before they reached Kemijärvi. The Finns burnt their own farms
and villages, booby-trapped farm animals, destroyed anything that could provide
the Russians with food and shelter, and, equipped with skis and local
knowledge, laid mines on tracks through the forests that were soon covered in
snow. Wearing white camouflage uniforms, which inexplicably the Russians were
not given, the Finns were nicknamed Bielaja Smert (White Death) by their
bewildered enemy.</div>
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Further south, the Russian 163rd and 44th Divisions were
annihilated around the ashes of the village of Suomussalmi, in a ferociously
brilliant Finnish operation that ranks with any of the Second World War. A
logging, fishing and hunting community of 4,000 people before the war, it was
captured by the 163rd (Tula) Motorized Rifle Division on 9 December, but was
then cut off by the Finnish 9th Brigade under Colonel Hjalmar Siilasvuo.
Because their leaders had assumed an easy victory, many of the Russians had
been sent into sub-Arctic Finland in December lacking winter clothes and felt
boots, as the Finns discovered by listening to their radio transmissions, which
were equally astonishingly sent en clair rather than in code. Freezing,
starving and cut off from retreat by the Finnish 9th Brigade for a fortnight,
the morale of the 163rd Division broke on Christmas Eve and they fled eastwards
across the frozen Lake Kiantajärvi. The Finns then sent up two Bristol Blenheim
medium bombers to smash the ice, sending tanks, horses, men and vehicles
tumbling into the freezing water below. As the historian of the Russo-Finnish
Winter War laconically records: ‘They are still there.’ The Russian 44th
Division that had come to rescue the 163rd were within earshot of the débâcle,
and could hear their comrades dying, but they were not given orders to move. On
the night of New Year’s Day they became the next victims of the White Death, as
the barometer dipped again to –30 Celsius. By constantly mortar-bombing their
sixty field kitchens at mealtimes, the Finns kept the Russians short of hot food,
and when the Russians lit fires the Finns machine-gunned them from the
treetops, ‘easily picking out the dark silhouettes of the men against the
snow’. The standard Red Army rifle, the single-shot bolt-action 7.62mm 1902
Moisin-Nagant, became inoperable when its gun-oil lubricant froze in conditions
below –15 Celsius, and armoured vehicles either had to be kept running, at
ruinous expense in fuel, or they would seize up and block the narrow
passageways through the forest.</div>
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‘We don’t let them rest,’ said General Kurt Wallenius of the
Finnish Northern Army; ‘we don’t let them sleep. This is a war of numbers
against brains.’ Sleep for the 44th was next to impossible because of the
vehicle engines, terrified horses, Finnish professional trackers and hunters who
made excellent snipers, and even ‘the sharp reports of the trees as their very
sap froze’. Those who resorted to vodka found that, despite the initial sense
of warmth, body heat was ultimately lost. The slightest wounds exposed to the
air froze and went gangrenous. Frozen corpses were piled up, one on top of the
other, as the Finns methodically moved from sector to sector, wiping out
Russian resistance. By 5 January, a thousand Russian prisoners had been taken,
a further 700 soldiers had escaped back to the Russian lines, and over 27,000
had been killed, all for the loss of 900 Finns. As one of his officers remarked
to Colonel Siilasvuo, ‘The wolves will eat well this winter.’ The Finns
captured 42 tanks, 102 field guns and 300 vehicles at Suomussalmi, as well as
thousands of the conical-shaped Red Army hats (budenovka) that they later used
in deception operations. Indeed, they captured more military hardware than they
received from outside sources, however much the League of Nations supported
Finland’s struggle (expelling the USSR from its ranks on 14 December) and
however much the Western Allies’ Supreme War Council debated sending aid (they
agreed to it only on 5 February, by which time it was too late).</div>
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The loss of the two divisions at Suomussalmi, when
compounded with the reversals at the Mannerheim Line and the victory of General
Paavo Talvela, who destroyed the 139th and 75th Red Army Divisions at
Tolvajärvi on Christmas Eve, sent a humiliating message around the globe for
the USSR, even though the Finns could not follow up these successes for lack of
troops (they were conscripting fifteen-year-olds as it was). Hitler in
particular believed he learnt lessons about the performance of the Red Army
that were to affect his decision to invade Russia the following year. Yet they
were substantially the wrong ones.</div>
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Stalin’s purging of the officer corps in 1937 had seriously
weakened the Red Army. The former Chief of Staff Marshal Tukhachevsky was shot,
and with him died new thinking about the development of mass armoured
formations operating deep inside enemy territory. General Konstantin
Rokossovsky, one of those who were tortured during that time – though not shot
despite his Polish origins – later said that purges were even worse for morale
than when artillery fired on one’s own troops because it would have to have
been very accurate artillery fire to achieve such damage. Three out of the five
Soviet marshals were purged in 1937–8, thirteen of the fifteen army commanders,
fifty-seven of the eighty-five corps commanders, 110 of the 195 divisional
commanders and 220 of the 406 brigade commanders. In total, around 43,000
officers were killed or imprisoned, although 20,000 were later released. Yet no
fewer than seventy-one out of the original eighty-five senior members of the
USSR’s Military Council were dead by 1941. When Rokossovsky, who had been
beaten so badly in prison that he lost eight teeth and had three ribs broken,
reported to Stalin for duty after being reinstated, Stalin asked him where he
had been. Rokossovsky told him, whereupon Stalin laughed and said, ‘A fine time
you chose to go to prison!’ before getting down to business.</div>
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Although the Soviet forces were staggeringly badly led at
the outset of the Winter War, they learnt quickly. A trusted member of the
Supreme Soviet from its creation in 1937, General Semyon Timoshenko was sent to
take over on 8 January, and after four or five attacks a day he broke through
the Mannerheim Line on 13 February. In Finland the Soviets came to understand
the importance of co-ordinating armour, infantry and artillery. However heavy
the Russian losses, there were always fresh troops to fling into the struggle.
As one Finn put it after the battle of Kuhmo, ‘There were more Russians than we
had bullets.’ When the fighting became purely attritional on the Isthmus, the
Finns simply could not carry on bleeding like the Russians could. Furthermore,
the Winter War showed that men fought harder when patriotically defending the
Soviet Motherland than when in attack. (That was eventually to apply to the
German Fatherland too.) Instead of these lessons, Hitler learnt the almost
banal one that Stalin had shot a lot of good generals in the late 1930s. He was
not the only one, however; on 20 January 1940 Churchill said that Finland ‘had
exposed for all to see the incapacity of the Red Army’.</div>
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On 11 February the Russian 123rd Division broke through the
Mannerheim Line close to Summa, leading much of the Seventh Army through two
days later. They then moved on to Viipuri. With neutral Norway and Sweden
denying access across their territory to the Allies, Petsamo in Russian hands
and Hitler closing off the eastern Baltic, no significant help was likely from
the West. Since by March as much as one-fifth of his army had become
casualties, and there were only 100 Finnish planes left to fight 800 Russian,
Mannerheim urged the Government to negotiate, and the Treaty of Moscow was
signed on 13 March, while Russian and Finnish troops were still engaged in
hand-to-hand combat in central Viipuri. Except for the loss of the whole
Karelian Isthmus, the terms were not very much worse from those demanded by
Stalin and Molotov in November, before around 200,000 Russians and 25,000 Finns
had died, and 680 Russian aircraft and 67 Finnish had been destroyed. Yet Russian
military prestige had been severely damaged, and Stalin had created a situation
on his north-western border that would require fifteen divisions to police. The
moment that Finland sniffed her opportunity for revenge, at the time of
Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, she seized it.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-9925563384772752112015-06-30T03:39:00.001-07:002015-06-30T03:39:05.387-07:00Ju-52 ”Kaleva”<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Kaleva, registered OH-ALL, was a civilian Junkers Ju 52
passenger and transport plane, belonging to the Finnish carrier Aero O/Y. The
aircraft was shot down by two Soviet Ilyushin DB-3 bombers during peacetime
between the Soviet Union and Finland on June 14, 1940, while en route from
Tallinn to Helsinki, killing all 9 on board.</div>
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<br /></div>
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A few minutes after taking off in Tallinn, Kaleva was joined
at close range by two Soviet DB-3T torpedo bombers. The bombers opened fire
with their machine guns and badly damaged Kaleva, making it crash into the
water a few kilometers northeast of Keri Lighthouse. All nine passengers and
crew members on board were killed.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Estonian fishermen had witnessed the attack and crash of the
plane. Shortly after the crash the Soviet submarine Shch-301 surfaced and
inspected the fishing boats. After confiscating items taken from the wreck by
the fishermen, the Soviets picked up diplomatic mail from the wreck and the
sea. The future top-scoring Finnish pilot Ilmari Juutilainen was sent to
inspect the crash site. After the Soviets spotted the Finnish airplane, the
submarine hid its flag.</div>
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<br /></div>
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At the time of the incident Finland was not at war with the
Soviet Union. The attack was probably part of the Soviet preparations for the
full-scale occupation of Estonia, which took place two days after the Kaleva
incident, on 16 June 1940. The occupation was preceded for several days by a
Soviet air and naval blockade, which included preventing diplomatic mail from
being sent abroad from Estonia. The passengers on the last flight of Kaleva
included two German businessmen, two French embassy couriers, one Swede, an
American courier, and an Estonian woman. The French couriers had over 120
kilograms of diplomatic mail in the plane. The American courier was reportedly
transporting the U.S. military codes to safety from Estonia.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The plane was piloted by Captain Bo von Willebrand, and
Tauno Launis was the wireless operator. The American victim was Henry W.
Antheil, Jr., younger brother of noted composer George Antheil. Antheil worked
as a clerk at the U.S. Legation in Helsinki. In 2007, he was honored for his
service in a ceremony at the U.S. Department of State. His name was inscribed
on the U.S. Department of State's Wall of Honor.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Government of Finland did not send any complaints or questions
to the Soviets out of fear of hostile Soviet response, and the true reason for
the crash was hidden from the public. This was due to the heavy pressure put
upon Finland during the Interim Peace by the Soviets. After the outbreak of the
Continuation War, the incident was described in detail by the government.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">G. Golderg's report</b></div>
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The commander of Shch-301 G. Golderg's report on the
incident held in the Russian State Naval Archives starts with the notice of a
Finnish airplane on its way from Tallinn to Helsinki on June 14, 1940 at 15.05
PM. According to the report, the airplane was chased by two Soviet Tupolev SB
high-speed bombers. At 15.06 PM, the Finnish airplane caught fire and fell into
the sea, 5.8 miles from the submarine. At 15.09 PM the submarine took course to
the crash site and made it to the location by 15.47 PM. The submarine was met
by 3 Estonian fishing boats near the detritus of the airplane. The Estonian
fishermen were searched by lieutenants Aladzhanov, Krainov and Shevtshenko. All
valuables found from the fishermen and in the sea were brought on board of the
submarine: the items included about 100 kg. of diplomatic post, valuables and
foreign currencies. At 15.58 a Finnish fighter plane was noticed with the
course towards the submarine. The airplane made 3 circles above the site and
then flew towards Helsinki. The exact coordinates of the crash site were
determined to be at 59°47′1″N 25°01′6″E.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A. Matvejev's report</b></div>
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Captain A. Matvejev's report states that on board the
Shch-301 noticed an airplane crash on June 14, 1940 at 15.06 on 5.8 miles
distance from the submarine. At the crash site 3 Estonian fishing boats and the
remains of the airplane were found. At 15.58 PM a Finnish fighter plane made 3
circles above the crash site. By 16.10 PM all items found from the sea and from
the hands of the fishermen were brought on board the submarine. The items
included about 100 kg of diplomatic mail, and valuables and currencies
including: 1) 2 golden medals, 2) 2000 Finnish marks, 3) 10.000 Romanian leus,
4)13.500 French francs, 5) 100 Yugoslav dinars, 6) 90 Italian liras, 7) 75 US
dollars, 8) 521 Soviet rubles, 9) 10 Estonian kroons. All items were put on
board of patrol boat "Sneg" and sent to Kronstadt.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8354636387320634804.post-4170741205764250362015-06-25T23:54:00.000-07:002015-06-30T04:31:14.246-07:00Danish Air Power 1940<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Before the war Denmark was extremely unprepared having
downgraded its military force. The air defence was divided into the Naval Air
Service and the Army Flying Corps.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Naval Air Service had a squadron of outdated Hawker
Nimrod (Danish version of Fury) fighters and seaplanes. Some were for use in
Greenland and there was a growing interest in torpedo launching.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Army Flying Corps had Gloster Gauntlets fighters and was
upgrading to Fokker D XXI fighters. The first was bought in Holland the rest
were built in Denmark. A Danish production of Fairey Battle bombers had started
but none were finished. Licence to build the Fokker G-1 heavy fighter was
acquired.</div>
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On the morning of April 9th 1940 the German occupation
started finding Denmark as unprepared as many other countries.</div>
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An attack by a stafel of ME-110 fighters destroyed most
planes at the Vaerloese Army Airfield. One Danish aircraft was shot down during
takeoff. From that day Danish military aviation stopped. Aircrafts were kept in
storage. Some were taken by the German occupation force and reused elsewhere.
The majority of the aircrafts were destroyed at a later stage by the Danish
resistance.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1941 two
lieutenants managed the refurbish a deHavilland Hornet Moth and to take off for
a flight to Britain where one joined to RAF the other served in a special
capacity due to his knowledge of German radar systems. In the fall of 1943
another Danish pilot under the same difficult circumstances took off in a
deHavilland Moth to fly to England. He joined Special Intelligence Service.</div>
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Danes escaping to Sweden also included military personnel. A
Danish Brigade was formed very discretely due to Swedish neutrality. This
brigade also had a Danish flying squadron. It was flying as a part of the
Swedish air force. The squadron was nominated to 15 SAAB B-17 dive bombers
intended for ground support for the brigade when it should participate in the
recapture of Denmark. </div>
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The German forces surrendered on May 5th 1945 and the
fighting following was relatively light. The brigade did not use the air
support. The squadron was flying in Swedish colours until May 5th when all planes
were painted in Danish colours.</div>
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<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0