Finland’s Air Force

In the 1930s, two controversies hindered Finnish aircraft acquisition. The first was the issue of whether fighters or bombers should have priority (the need for fighters seeming paramount). The second was the country from which to purchase aircraft. The head of the Defense Council, Carl Mannerheim, favored Germany, and the air force commander, Colonel Jarl Lundquist (later a lieutenant general), favored Britain. Mannerheim stressed the danger of air attacks on Finnish cities when arguing for more funds for the air force, but he gave priority to air support for ground forces when war came.

In September 1939, the Finnish Air Force (FAF) had only 36 modern interceptors (Dutch Fokker D-XXIs) and 21 bombers (14 Bristol Blenheims and 7 Junkers K430s). Lundquist deployed his limited fighter assets forward to protect the army and defend as much Finnish air space as possible. Following the Soviet invasion of Finland in November 1939, Finnish bombers attacked airfields and supported ground forces. In late December 1939, the FAF was able to purchase additional Fokker fighters, but its best aircraft came in the form of Morane-Saulnier MS-406s purchased from France. The Finns purchased additional Blenheims, U.S. Brewster F2A Buffalos (the Finns enjoyed considerable success with this much-maligned aircraft), Italian Fiat G-50s, and additional MS 406s. Most arrived too late for the war.

During this Finnish-Soviet War of 1939–1940, also called the Winter War, the FAF supposedly accounted for approximately 200 Soviet aircraft, and more than 300 others were destroyed by antiaircraft fire or on the ground. Finnish losses during the war amounted to 53 aircraft.

Finnish Air Force in the Winter War

At the beginning of the war, Finland had a very small air force, with only 114 combat airplanes fit for duty. Therefore, Finnish air missions were very limited and fighter aircraft were mainly used to repel Soviet bombers. Old-fashioned and few in numbers, Finnish aircraft could not offer support to the Finnish ground troops. In spite of aircraft losses throughout the war, the Finnish Air Force grew by 50 percent by the end of the war. Most new aircraft shipments arrived during January 1940.

Finnish fighter pilots often dove into Soviet formations that outnumbered them ten or even twenty times. Finnish fighters shot down 240 confirmed Soviet aircraft, against the Finnish loss of 53. A Finnish forward air base often consisted of only a frozen lake, a windsock, a telephone set and some tents. Air-raid warnings were given by Finnish women organized by the Lotta Svärd. Finnish antiaircraft gunners shot down between 314 to 444 Soviet aircraft.

Finnish aircraft

At the start of hostilities, the Finnish Air Force had 146 aircraft of all types at its disposal. The primary fighter aircraft were 15 Bristol Bulldog IVs, which had entered service in 1935, and 41 of the more modern Fokker D.XXI. There were also 18 license-built Bristol Blenheim bombers. In 1939, an order had been placed in Italy for 25 Fiat G.50 fighters; two were being assembled in Sweden when the war broke out.

During the war, a number of aircraft were ordered from abroad:

    30 Gloster Gladiator II biplane fighters from the United Kingdom

    12 Bristol Blenheim IV bombers from the United Kingdom

    30 Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters from France

    44 Brewster 239 fighters from the United States

    22 Gloster Gauntlet trainers from the United Kingdom

    10 Fiat G.50 fighters from Italy

In air combat, Finland used the "finger four" formation (four planes split into two pairs, one flying low and the other high, with each plane fighting independently of the others, yet supporting its wingman in combat), which was superior to the Soviet tactic of three fighters flying in a delta formation. This formation and the credo of Finnish pilots to always attack, no matter the odds, contributed to the failure of Soviet bombers to inflict substantial damage against Finnish positions and population centres.

#

In 1941, when Finland again went to war with the Soviet Union (the Finnish-Soviet War of 1941–1944, also called the Continuation War), Finland’s air force had increased substantially. It possessed 144 modern fighters (a mixture of U.S., British, French, Dutch, and Italian planes); 44 British and ex-Soviet bombers; and 63 mostly British and German reconnaissance planes. Once the Continuation War began, Finnish access to aircraft from other nations except Germany was cut off. The Finns did have their own aircraft industry, which produced limited numbers of aircraft including the VL Myrsky II fighter.

Continuation War 1941–44

The Finnish Air Force was better prepared for the Continuation War. It had been considerably strengthened and consisted of some 550 aircraft, though many were considered second-rate and thus "exportable" by their countries of origin. Finland purchased a large number of aircraft during the Winter War, but few of those reached service during the short conflict. Politics also played a factor, since Hitler did not wish to antagonize the Soviet Union by allowing aircraft exports through German-controlled territory during the conflict. New aircraft types were in place by the time hostilities with Soviet Union resumed in 1941. Small numbers of Hawker Hurricanes arrived from the United Kingdom, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s from France, Fiat G.50s from Italy, a few dozen Curtiss Hawk 75s captured by the Germans in France and Norway then sold to Finland, when Germany began warming up its ties with Finland, and numerous Brewster B239s from the neutral USA strengthened the FiAF. The FiAF proved capable of holding its own in the upcoming battles with the Red Air Force. Older models, like the Fokker D.XXI and Gloster Gladiator, were replaced in front-line combat units with the new aircraft.

The FiAF's main mission was to achieve air superiority over Finland and prevent Soviet air power from reinforcing their front lines. The fighter squadrons were very successful in the Finnish offensive of 1941. A stripped-down, more maneuverable, and significantly lightened version of the American Brewster B239 "Buffalo" was the FiAF's main fighter until 1943. Results with this fighter were very good, even though the type was considered to be a failure in the US Navy and with British Far East forces. In the Finnish use, the Brewster had a victory rate of 32:1 – 459 kills to 15 losses. German Bf 109s replaced the Brewster as the primary front-line fighter of the FiAF in 1943, though the Buffalos continued in secondary roles until the end of the wars. Other types, especially the Italian Fiat G.50 and Curtiss Hawk 75 also proved capable in the hands of well-trained Finnish pilots. Various Russian designs also saw action when lightly damaged "kills" were repaired and made airworthy.

Dornier Do 17s (received as a gift from Hermann Göring in 1942) and Junkers Ju 88s improved the bombing capability of the Finnish Air Force. The bomber force was also strengthened with a number of captured Soviet bombers, which had been taken in large numbers by the Germans during Operation Barbarossa. The bomber units flew assorted missions with varying results, but a large part of their time was spent in training, waiting to use their aircraft until the time required it. Thus the bomber squadrons of Flying Regiment 4 were ready for the summer battles of 1944, which included for example the Battle of Tali-Ihantala.

While the FiAF was successful in its mission, the conditions were not easy. Spare parts for the FiAF planes were scarce — parts from the US (Buffalo & Hawk), Britain (Hurricanes), and Italy (G.50) were unavailable for much of the war. Repairs took often a long time, and the State Aircraft Factory was burdened with restoration/repair of Soviet war booty planes, foreign aircraft with many hours of flight time, and the development of indigenous Finnish fighter types. Also, one damaged bomber took up workshop space equalling three fighters.

Finland was required to expel or intern remaining German forces as part of its peace agreement with the Soviets in mid-1944. As a result, the final air battles were against retreating Luftwaffe units.

The Finnish Air Force did not bomb any civilian targets during either war. Curiously, overflying Soviet towns and bases was also forbidden, as to avoid any unneeded provocations and to spare equipment.

According to Kalevi Keskinen's and Kari Stenman's book "Aerial Victories 1–2", the Finnish Air Force shot down 1,621 Soviet aircraft while losing 210 own aircraft during the Continuation War 1941–44.

Finnish Air Force strategy stressed aggressiveness; isolated fighters usually attacked no matter the number of Soviet aircraft. The FAF employed a blue swastika marking (no relation to the Nazi version) for national identification. The Luftwaffe and FAF cooperated in this conflict, although neither could prevent Soviet air raids into Finnish territory nor completely screen the Finnish army from air attacks.

References Kirby, D. G. Finland in the Twentieth Century. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. Tillotson, H. M. Finland at Peace and War, 1918–1993. Wilby, UK: Michael Russell, 1993. Trotter, William R. A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish War of 1939–40. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 1991.

Curtiss P-36 Hawk in Minor Air Forces

Argentina

Argentina bought a number of the simplified, fixed landing gear Hawk 75Os, (intended for rough-field operations and ease of maintenance) and purchased a manufacturing license for the type. These aircraft used the same engine, Wright Cyclone R-1820-G5 as the Martin 139WAA's (B-10) and Northrop 8A-2s used by the Argentine Army Aviation at the time. Usually armed with 1 x 11.35 mm Madsen machine gun and 3 x 7.65 mm Madsen light machine guns, there was provision for up to 10 bombs of 30 pounds each on underwing pylons. The last Argentinian Hawks remained in service until November 1954.

Brazil

In March 1942, 10 USAAC P-36As were transferred to Brazil.

China

The prototype of the Hawk 75H - a simplified version with fixed landing gear, like the 75O – was eventually sold to the Chinese Nationalist government who presented it to Claire L. Chennault for personal use. China also received two similar demonstrators, the Hawk 75Q. They also used a number of simplified Hawk 75Ms against the Japanese. The Hawk 75A-5 was built under license in China, but production was later moved to India, and these aircraft were absorbed into the RAF as the Mohawk IV.

Iran

A total of 10 Hawk 75A-9s were delivered to Persia, but were captured by the British while still in crates. These were then used by the RAF in India as Mohawk IVs.

Norway

Norway ordered 24 Twin Wasp-powered Hawk 75A-6s, of which 19 were delivered and seven assembled at the time of the German invasion. None of the aircraft were combat-ready. The disassembled aircraft were disabled by a single customs employee who smashed the instruments and cut all the wires he could reach. Norwegian Hawks captured by the Germans were part of the batch sent to Finland. Norway also ordered 36 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75A-8s. Most of this batch (a total of 30) were delivered as advanced trainers to "Little Norway" near Toronto, Ontario, Canada, a Norwegian training base established by the London based government-in-exile. Still later, they were resold to the U.S. and redesignated the P-36G model.

Peru

In 1943, the U.S. sent 28 Hawks to Peru under the Lend-Lease agreement. These were ex-Norwegian P-36Gs that had served in Canada.

Portugal

Portugal was officially neutral during World War II, although the Allies were allowed to use or establish ports and airfields on various Portuguese territories. One result of these friendly relations was the transfer by the British government of 12 Hawk 75A variants to the Força Aérea Portuguesa (FAP), which assigned them to air defense duties in the Azores.

Thailand

A few Hawk 75Ns were used by Thailand during the French-Thai War. They also fought at the Battle of Prachuab Khirikhan against Japanese forces during the Japanese Invasion of Thailand.

Austria-Hungary Air Force WWI

A major power in the early use of air warfare. Aviation roots ran deep in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which undertook the world’s first aerial attack in 1849: two unmanned balloons, laden with explosives, launched and aimed at the Italian arsenal in Venice.

Following this promising beginning, however, progress slowed, and by the time World War I erupted the Dual Monarchy could only lay claim to a single aircraft builder, Lohner. Lacking the industrial capacity of Germany, Austro-Hungary’s aviation did not develop as rapidly prior to, or during, the war. A good comparison can be seen in the prewar investment of the two powers: Austria-Hungary spent the equivalent of $318,307 on military aviation in 1914,whereas German investment that same year was $14,836,726.Despite the inauspicious start, however, Austro-Hungarian achievements were impressive.

During the war, the aircraft industry expanded to the point that, at the Armistice, another nine companies had joined Lohner in the aircraft field. It should be pointed out, however, that many of these firms, such as the Ostdeutsch Albatros Werke (East German Albatros Work),were branches of German aviation companies set up in the Habsburg Empire to assure that the wartime military needs of Germany’s ally were met, as well as to exploit the possibilities of the Austro-Hungarian market. The number of workers engaged in aviation production had grown steadily as well, from 1,400 in 1914 to 12,000 in October 1918.Those 12,000 workers had managed to produce a respectable 4,768 aircraft for the army and another 413 for the navy, as well as 4,900 engines. The design departments were also busy, cranking out some 125 different prototypes, as well as two tethered helicopter designs intended to replace observation balloons.

Many names with bright futures came out of the Austro-Hungarian design offices of World War I, including Ernest Mach, Ferdinand Porsche, and Igo Etrich, among others.

Wartime command of the Austro-Hungarian Luftfahrtruppe (Aviation Troops) fell to the very capable Oberst (Colonel) Emil Uzelac, a post held by generals in the other European air forces. Uzelac was highly regarded by his superiors as well as the troops under his command and was noted for regularly seeking out the advice and opinions of the lower ranks when inspecting aviation fields. Both a pilot and an engineer, as well as being organizationally gifted, Uzelac was able to mold the Luftfahrtruppe into a highly effective fighting force that soldiered on right up to the end of the empire.

Austria-Hungary, like its German ally, was forced to fight on two fronts: Russia to the north and Italy to the south. Its position was complicated even further by the diverse and stratified society that populated the Dual Monarchy, where 14 different languages were spoken. Although the language of command was uniformly understood, its vocabulary was limited to approximately 200 words. This forced the burden of day-to-day management onto local noncommissioned officers (NCOs) who were able to communicate with the troops. Yet despite the heavy reliance placed on its NCO force, the stiffly structured social tradition of the Austro- Hungarian military denied these men promotion to the officer corps. In Germany, a talented and successful NCO pilot might expect a promotion to the commissioned ranks, but this never happened in the Austro-Hungarian military. Of the 49 Luftfahrtruppe pilots who achieved ace status during the war, 19 were NCOs. Only one of those 19, Josef Kiss, whose 19 victories placed him fifth on the aces’ list, was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant), and that honor was achieved only posthumously.

Aircraft and airmen operating in Austria-Hungary had to be rugged to withstand the rigors of the mountainous terrain over which the aerial battles were fought. Oftentimes, a forced landing was deadlier than an opposing airman. Naval operations were equally hazardous, with regular trips in frail-looking Lohner flying boats from the naval air station at Pola across the Adriatic and back to and from that favorite target, Venice. In the end it all came to nothing. Like its German counterpart, the Luftfahrtruppe did not survive the Armistice. With the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and the end of the war, Austria-Hungary was obliged to dismantle its air force. Under the supervision of the Inter-Allied Control Commission, the remnants of the Austro-Hungarian aviation accomplishment were reduced to cinders.

References Grosz, Peter M., George Haddow, and Peter Schiemer. Austro- Hungarian Army Aircraft of World War One. Mountain View, CA: Flying Machines Press, 1993. O’Connor, Dr.Martin. Air Aces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1914–1918. Mesa, AZ: Champlin Fighter Museum Press, 1986.